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145-758: Nepotism is the act of granting an advantage , privilege, or position to relatives or friends in an occupation or field - for instance business, politics, academia, entertainment, religion or health care . In concept it is similar to cronyism . The term originated with the assignment of nephews, sons, or other relatives to important positions by Catholic popes and bishops. It has often been witnessed in autocracies , whereby traditional aristocracies usually contested amongst themselves in order to obtain leverage, status, etc. Nepotism has been criticized since ancient history by philosophers including Aristotle , Valluvar , and Confucius , condemning it as both evil and unwise. The term comes from Italian word nepotismo , which

290-440: A balance between minimization of in-group differences and maximization of intergroup differences. More specifically, according to social identity theory, there is a continuum between personal and social identity shifts along this continuum that determine the extent to which group-related or personal characteristics influence a person's feelings and actions. If a particular social identity is a salient basis for self-conception, then

435-507: A bias against Eastern sounding names was present amongst men. Furthermore, men showed more bias for Ashkenazic men compared to women, but the opposite was true for Eastern names. This result may seem counter-intuitive, as participants appear to share more in common if they were both male. Thus, we would expect Eastern females to be more marginalized, but is actually consistent with other studies which studied discrimination against Afro-American women. In 2008 Fehr, Bernhard, and Rockenbach, in

580-467: A certain group is correlated with a certain behavioral norm, the emergence of in-group biases where it is beneficial to act in differing manners to members of the same group is certainly plausible. Rudman and Goodwin conducted research on gender bias that measured gender preferences without directly asking the participants. Subjects at Purdue and Rutgers University participated in computerized tasks that measured automatic attitudes based on how quickly

725-500: A commitment to the role within that context becomes a big part of perpetrating the idea of self. It also finds people relating more to others that hold similar role identities at the top of their hierarchies. Because people have self-concepts that are derived from a role they define for themselves within the context of a group, when staying within their roles, intergroup similarities are accentuated while intergroup differences are diminished. In an attempt to assimilate oneself according to

870-491: A director of the State Bank of Mauritius . The new nomination will allow Rishikesh Hurdoyal to receive an extra Rs 54,540 per month, as well as an additional Rs 10,125 per month as entertainment allowance, with access to a chauffeured company car with 245 litres of fuel per month. The appointment of Nurul Izzah as a senior economic and finance advisor by Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim resulted in accusations of nepotism. The action

1015-412: A factor in xenophobic tendencies secondary to this effect. Thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries. Cross-cultural studies have found that in-group derogation, the tendency to criticize members of one's own group or culture more harshly than members of outside groups,

1160-533: A family firm in case a family controls more than 50% of the voting rights. For a publicly listed firm, a firm is classified as a family firm in case the family holds at least 32% of the voting rights. Family owned businesses account for over 30% of companies with sales over $ 1 billion. In a family business, two or more members within the management team are drawn from the owning family. Family businesses can have owners who are not family members. Family businesses may also be managed by individuals who are not members of

1305-403: A founder intends to transfer ownership in the family business to their four children, two of whom work in the business, how do they balance these unequal differences? The four siblings need a system to do this themselves when the founder is no longer involved. The third situation is when there are multiple owners and some or all of the owners are not in management. Given the situation above, there

1450-399: A high-status group. More specifically, the ventral medial prefrontal cortex becomes active when individuals categorize themselves into groups with whom they already share prior experience which can be based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or gender. This region of the brain is activated due to emotional social reasoning where self-referential processing leads individuals to view

1595-516: A job, attaining a job or being paid more than other similarly situated people. Arguments are made both for and against employment granted due to a family connection, which is most common in small, family run businesses . On one hand, nepotism can provide stability and continuity. Critics cite studies that demonstrate decreased morale and commitment from non-related employees, and a generally negative attitude towards superior positions filled through nepotism. An article from Forbes magazine stated "there

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1740-588: A linkage between a payoff-relevant behavior and a payoff-irrelevant marker. Subsequently, in-group favoritism occurred in ensuing social interactions. Participants were first divided into one of several populations of ten people, and then further divided into subpopulations of five. Each group had different payoff for coordinating on one of two choices, behavior A or behavior B. In group 1, participants were awarded 41 points for coordinating (choosing A themselves and choosing another participant who also chose A) on A and 21 for coordinating on B. The payoffs were switched in

1885-431: A mechanism that bolsters automatic preference for their own gender. Using a public goods game , Van Vugt, De Cremer, and Janssen found that men contributed more to their group in the face of outside competition from another group; there was no distinct difference amongst women's contributions. In 2001 Fershtman and Gneezy found that men showed in-group biases in a "trust" game based on ethnicity, whereas this tendency

2030-469: A member of a specific group. This part of the brain is also activated when we think about personal qualities. People tend to want to feel good about themselves and base their personality on the groups they are part of. People then focus on the positives of their group which leads to people favoring their group and seeing it better than other groups. If people do this, then they will also feel good about themselves because they perceive themselves as being part of

2175-404: A mock summer camp situation, with researchers posing as camp personnel. The boys were divided into two equal groups and encouraged to bond, with the aim of fostering an in-group mentality. The researchers then introduced a series of competitive activities which pitted groups against each other for a valuable prize. Hostility and out-group negativity ensued. Lastly, researchers attempted to reverse

2320-486: A negative light. That is, individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their own group is superior. This phenomenon was pioneered and studied most extensively by Henri Tajfel , a British social psychologist who looked at the psychological root of in-group/out-group bias. To study this in the lab, Tajfel and colleagues created minimal groups (see minimal group paradigm ), which occur when "complete strangers are formed into groups using

2465-520: A person categorizes pleasant and unpleasant attributes with each gender. Such a task was done to discover whether people associate pleasant words (good, happy, and sunshine) with women, and unpleasant words (bad, trouble, and pain) with men. This research found that while both women and men have more favorable views of women, women's in-group biases were 4.5 times stronger than those of men and only women (not men) showed cognitive balance among in-group bias, identity, and self-esteem, revealing that men lack

2610-425: A person's social role. At the center of it is the proposition that the self is made up of multi-faceted and differentiated components that exist in an organized manner for the sake of filling in roles in society. People are able to create an identity for themselves only through talking to others, and often what roles they are taking on differ from one group to another. These differing roles and positions people fill are

2755-458: A prime source of wealth creation and employment. In some countries, many of the largest publicly listed firms are family-owned. A firm is said to be family-owned if a person is the controlling shareholder; that is, a person (rather than a state, corporation, management trust, or mutual fund) can garner enough shares to assure at least 20% of the voting rights and the highest percentage of voting rights in comparison to other shareholders. Some of

2900-416: A psychologist higher than the identity of being a linguist will find that while he/she may become competitive when meeting another person that is better at psychology than he/she, he/she will not care when in contact with someone who is much better at being a linguist than he/she. In a similar way, social relationships are influenced by this salience. Self-identity often places individuals in social contexts and

3045-470: A result of their interactions with others and are called role identities. Role identities may be self-realized, or may be facts like being a mother, a social worker, or a blood donor. Role identities lead people to act in certain ways due to assumed expectations for the roles. Because there is satisfaction in complying with expectations of the role, there is often distress behind an inability to appear congruent to one's identity as defined by societal norms. There

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3190-455: A role in collectivist cultures' in-group derogation, due to their ability to tolerate holding seemingly contradictory views. Family business A family business is the oldest and most common model of economic organization. The vast majority of businesses throughout the world—from corner shops to multinational publicly listed organizations with hundreds of thousands of employees—can be considered as family businesses. Based on research of

3335-466: A sense of expected behaviors in his or her subpopulation, but occasionally would find themselves in a totally new situation in which their behaviors were not in-line with social norms . The results showed that players generally developed an inclination to pair behavior with a marker, especially if it had resulted in a positive payoff. As linkages at an individual level increase, covariation (of marker and behavior) at an aggregate level also increases. In

3480-446: A study conducted on children, found that boys displayed in-group favoritism from ages 3–8, whereas girls did not display such tendencies. The experiment involved usage of an "envy game", a modified version of the dictator game . A possible explanation posited by researchers relied on an evolutionary basis. They theorized that parochialism and favoring members of the same group may have been particularly advantageous as it strengthened

3625-417: A study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates of dishonesty in the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected. Both of these examples show the tendency to act in ways that benefit in-group members. As noted in two recent theoretical reviews, the theoretical basis for

3770-421: A task. In this case, individuals must use abstract social reasoning, a part of the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, to form self-guided ideas for categorical identification. It is important to note that with newly formed groups, individuals do not have an emotional component which is why the ventral medial prefrontal cortex is not activated. Studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises endogenously, through

3915-623: A younger age than females, as was evident in the experiment. A 2013 study found that Turks with a stronger in-group bias were less likely to acknowledge the in-group responsibility for the Armenian genocide . A study conducted during the 2008 Presidential elections showcased how group identities were dynamic. The study was carried out among 395 Democrats from Cambridge, MA, using an Economics dictator game . Subjects were given $ 6 to divide between themselves and another person. The recipients remained anonymous, apart from which candidate they supported in

4060-446: Is a higher chance that the interests of the two off-spring not employed in the family business may be different from the interests of the two who are employed in the business. Their potential for differences does not mean that the interests cannot be aligned, it just means that there is a greater need for the four owners to have a system in place that differences can be identified and balanced. There appear to be two main factors affecting

4205-442: Is also an existing hierarchy of importance for roles that individuals take on, and according to the hierarchical standing of roles, people become more representative of roles that stand higher hierarchically, according to them. Identity salience, the likelihood of role identities being invoked in different situations, is the result of role identities being placed hierarchically in different orders from person to person. People who hold

4350-455: Is an alternative explanation and additional reasoning as to the relationship between self-esteem and in-group/out-group biases. Alternatively, it is possible that researchers have used the wrong sort of self-esteem measures to test the link between self-esteem and in-group bias (global personal self-esteem rather than specific social self-esteem). In a meta-analysis and review of the effect of oxytocin on social behavior done by Carsten De Dreu ,

4495-595: Is based on Latin root nepos meaning nephew. Since the Middle Ages and until the late 17th century, some Catholic popes and bishops – who had taken vows of chastity and, therefore, usually had no legitimate offspring of their own – gave their nephews such positions of preference as were often accorded by fathers to sons. They would also do the same with children who were the illegitimate result of broken celibacy vows, and who were claimed to be "nephews" instead of sons. Several popes elevated nephews and other relatives to

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4640-435: Is both evil and unwise. Nepotism is a common accusation in politics when the relative of a powerful figure ascends to similar power seemingly without appropriate qualifications. The British English expression " Bob's your uncle " is thought to have originated when Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury , promoted his nephew, Arthur Balfour , to the esteemed post of Chief Secretary for Ireland , which

4785-592: Is common practice for family members of current or former party leaders to be party members and get appointed as ministers when the party is in government. In addition, there have been three prime ministers from the Papandreou family , two from the Mitsotakis family (one currently serving), two from the Karamanlis family (a third one was serving as minister of transportation until February 2023, quitting his position following

4930-583: Is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. A study done in the Netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners. People also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin. It has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be

5075-520: Is fine, as long as they continue to be managed by people who are steeped in the traditions, or at least able to adapt to them. Often family members can benefit from involving more than one professional advisor, each having the particular skill set needed by the family. Some of the skill sets that might be needed include communication, conflict resolution , family systems, finance, legal, accounting, insurance, investing, leadership development, management development, and strategic planning . Ownership in

5220-510: Is fluid and changing according to different contexts, but those within the group who want to keep up with the majority views in all matters have to keep an active role in affirming the views of the in-group in contest to out-groups. Various neural correlates are impacted by group membership, which can shed light on the development of biases toward in-group members. The brain plays a critical role in how individuals classify themselves and others into groups based on personal attributes, as explained by

5365-424: Is generally seen as unethical, both on the part of the employer and employee. One of the consequences of nepotism in an organization is the creation of a limitation in the organization's network of contacts, reducing the opportunities for negotiation with other social circles, which can lead to a reduction in the success and duration of organizations in the long term. Nepotism at work can mean increased opportunity at

5510-679: Is in academia where it is common for professors to have their partners, and sometimes children, hired by the same faculty in which they work. In the second half of the 20th century, in the United States at least, this was far less frequent as universities typically held very strict anti-nepotism policies. Countries with high levels of corruption and higher education systems with low competition between universities are generally have higher levels of corruption in academia. Italy has been noted for having particularly high levels of nepotism in its academic system, when compared to other developed nations. Nepotism

5655-511: Is involved in nepotism, alongside corruption and collusion (together, they are known as the KKN in Indonesian : korupsi, kolusi, dan nepotisme ). Companies belonging to Suharto's children, particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ("Tutut"), Hutomo Mandala Putra ("Tommy"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include

5800-404: Is made public about financial performance. Ownership may be distributed through trusts or holding companies, and family members themselves may not be fully informed about the ownership structure of their enterprise. However, as the 21st-century global economic model replaces the old industrial model, government policy makers, economists, and academics turn to entrepreneurial and family enterprises as

5945-399: Is more common among members of disadvantaged and minority groups than among members of the majority or dominant group. According to Ma-Kellams, Spencer-Rodgers and Peng, system justification theory seeks to explain why "minorities sometimes endorse system-justifying views of their group". They said their research into in-group favoritism and derogation partially supported this theory, but that

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6090-904: Is no ladder to climb when the top rung is reserved for people with a certain name." Employing intimate people favors perpetuating the ideas or goals of those who employ them, knowing that the people around them will face up to them. However, it can lead to a lack of competent staff or a reduction in productivity because even if the employees are not the best options for their functions, they will be protected by those who employ them. Some businesses forbid nepotism as an ethical matter, considering it too troublesome and disruptive. Most Companies' Codes of Conduct include severe disciplinary sanction for Conflicts of Interest . However, in Nepotistic practices, these are rarely observed or implemented. Outside of national politics, accusations of "nepotism" are made in instances of prima facie favoritism to relatives. Nepotism

6235-489: Is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. During conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. Further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to

6380-415: Is often praised for favoring female employment in academia. In Argentina , nepotism is a common practice. Although there have been various attempts at reducing it, it is difficult in a country where state jobs are used as a token of gratitude or party favoritism. Former president Mauricio Macri has been investigated for nepotism after allegedly extending a tax amnesty to his family. Nonetheless, in 2018,

6525-465: Is often used to show the three principal roles in a family-owned or -controlled organization: Family, Ownership and Management. This model shows how the roles may overlap. Everyone in the family (in all generations) obviously belongs to the Family circle, but some family members will never own shares in the family business, or ever work there. A family member is concerned with social capital (reputation within

6670-430: Is primarily viewed from a social psychology standpoint. Studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises as a result of the formation of cultural groups. These cultural groups can be divided based on seemingly trivial observable traits, but with time, populations grow to associate certain traits with certain behavior, increasing covariation. This then incentivizes in-group bias. Two prominent theoretical approaches to

6815-441: Is referred to as ethnocentrism . Realistic conflict theory (or realistic group conflict) posits that competition between groups for resources is the cause of in-group bias and the corresponding negative treatment of members of the out-group. Muzafer Sherif's Robbers Cave Experiment is the most widely known demonstration of realistic conflict theory. In the experiment, 22 eleven-year-old boys with similar backgrounds were studied in

6960-488: Is that family, ownership, and business roles involve different and sometimes conflicting values, goals, and actions. For example, family members put a high priority on emotional capital—the family success that unites them through consecutive generations. Executives in the business are concerned about strategy and social capital—the reputation of their firm in the marketplace. Owners are interested in financial capital—performance in terms of wealth creation. A three-circles model

7105-416: Is the act of punishing or placing burdens upon the outgroup. Indeed, a significant body of research exists that attempts to identify the relationship between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, as well as conditions that will lead to outgroup negativity. For example, Struch and Schwartz found support for the predictions of belief congruence theory. The belief congruence theory concerns itself with

7250-642: Is the former ambassador to Russia . Dozens of nephews, nieces, cousins, and in-laws have also been appointed as heads of banks, boards, and corporations. In-group favoritism In-group favoritism , sometimes known as in-group–out-group bias , in-group bias , intergroup bias , or in-group preference , is a pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources, and in many other ways. This effect has been researched by many psychologists and linked to many theories related to group conflict and prejudice . The phenomenon

7395-696: Is the son of Philippe Hao Thyn Voon, president of the Olympic Committee, with close ties to the MSM. Following the St Louis gate scandal and discovery of fake bank guarantees, PAD & Co. Ltd went under voluntary administration . In June 2020, MP Eshan Juman revealed details of a contract between the Ministry of Land and Housing and a private firm called Smart Clinics Ltd. The firm is partly owned by MSM Parliamentary Private Secretary Ismaël Rawoo and his family. The contract

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7540-435: Is to recognise the issues that they face, understand how to develop strategies to address them and more importantly, to create narratives, or family stories that explain the emotional dimension of the issues to the family. The most intractable family business issues are not the business problems the organisation faces, but the emotional issues that compound them. Many years of achievement through generations can be destroyed by

7685-887: The Forbes 400 richest Americans, 44% of the Forbes 400 member fortunes were derived by being a member of or in association with a family business. The economic prevalence and importance of this kind of business are often underestimated. Throughout most of the 20th century, academics and economists were intrigued by a newer, “improved” model: large publicly traded companies run in an apparently rational, bureaucratic manner by well trained “organization men.” Entrepreneurial and family firms, with their specific management models and complicated psychological processes, often fell short by comparison. Privately owned or family-controlled enterprises are not always easy to study. In many cases, they are not subject to financial reporting requirements, and little information

7830-576: The 2013 Cambodian parliamentary elections , at least eight candidates were sons of high-ranking Cambodian People's Party officials. All sons of the ruling party lost but were eventually appointed into high-ranking government positions. For the past 3,000 years, nepotism has been common in China's clan and extended family-based culture. Confucius wrote about the importance of balancing "filial piety with merit". The clan -based feudal system collapsed during Confucius' lifetime, yet nepotism has continued through

7975-713: The Democratic Primaries . Data were collected in three separate periods. June 10 to 18 (after Hillary Clinton 's concession speech on June 7); August 9 to 14, before the Democratic National Convention on the 25; and September 2 to 5, in the buildup to the Presidential elections. The results showed that men displayed significant in-group favoritism from June all the way to the DNC in August. This in-group bias, however,

8120-1295: The Nehru–Gandhi family which produced three Indian prime ministers. Family members have also led the Congress Party for most of the period since 1978 when Indira Gandhi floated the then Congress(I) faction of the party. The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party also features several senior leaders who are dynasts. Dynastic politics is prevalent also in a number of political parties with regional presence such as Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Indian National Lok Dal (INLD), Jammu & Kashmir National Conference (JKNC), Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party (JKPDP), All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM), Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam (DMDK), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(s)), Jannayak Janta Party (JJP) Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), National People's Party (NPP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD), Samajwadi Party (SP), Shiromani Akali Dal (SKD), Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray) (SS(UBT)), Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS), Yuvajana Shramika Rythu Congress Party (YSRCP) and Telugu Desam Party (TDP). Many judges and advocates of

8265-621: The Netflix film Drive (2019), was quickly accused of nepotism by actress Kangana Ranaut , with Rajput's fans calling for a boycott of Johar and his studio, Dharma Productions , as well as of actor Salman Khan and his brothers , who were accused of bullying outsiders in the past. Actors and actresses Alia Bhatt , Varun Dhawan , Janhvi Kapoor , Ishaan Khatter , Ananya Pandey , Athiya Shetty , Tiger Shroff , Arjun Kapoor and Sara Ali Khan , all of whom hail from film families, were also widely criticized. Suharto , Indonesia's second president,

8410-590: The Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka , and has held many other posts before, while his eldest son, Namal Rajapaksa, is also a member of the parliament and holds undisclosed portfolios. Others include: his nephew, Shashindra Rajapaksa , who is the former Chief Minister of Uva ; one of his cousins, former Sri Lankan ambassador to the United States , Jaliya Wickramasuriya ; and another cousin, Udayanga Weeratunga , who

8555-613: The cardinalate . Often, such appointments were a means of continuing a papal "dynasty". For instance, Pope Callixtus III , head of the Borgia family, made two of his nephews cardinals; one of them, Rodrigo, later used his position as a cardinal as a stepping stone to the papacy, becoming Pope Alexander VI . Alexander then elevated Alessandro Farnese, his mistress's brother, to cardinal; Farnese would later go on to become Pope Paul III . Paul III also engaged in nepotism, appointing, for instance, two nephews, aged 14 and 16, as cardinals. The practice

8700-554: The first democratic elections in 1948 , the field of politics in Mauritius has been marked by a handful of families who have controlled the four major political parties which exist to this day. They are often referred to as the "modern dynasties" of Mauritian politics such as the Duval, Bérenger, Curé, Uteem, Mohamed, Boolell, Ramgoolam and Jugnauth families. The Boolell family's involvement in politics started with Satcam Boolell in 1955, paving

8845-626: The high courts and the Supreme Court of India are alleged to be appointed by exercising casteism, nepotism, and favoritism, primarily due to the Supreme Court and the high court appointment process called Collegium which recommends to the President, in a legally binding manner, the names of judges to be appointed or promoted to the higher judiciary. The various judicial services exams are also infamous for these practices. The Kapoor family , one of

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8990-431: The social identity theory . Research shows that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) region displays increased activity when individuals engage in group categorization. This increased activity in this brain region is activated because people tend to focus on the positive qualities of their group. This increased brain activity has been linked to social identity which is a portion of one’s personality that comes from being

9135-443: The " out-group " was presented as more immoral and more responsible for the conflict. There were substantial variations between conflicts, however, and additional analyses revealed in-group favoritism to be more pronounced in more recent conflicts and in articles written predominantly by "in-group" members. Social psychologists have long made the distinction between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, where outgroup negativity

9280-517: The 1930s, became Lord Mayor and minister; his son Yousuf and grandson Shakeel were also elected and served as ministers. Roshi Bhadain , who was a minister of the MSM government, is the nephew of former Labour Party minister Vasant Bunwaree . Roshi Bhadain and Akilesh Deerpalsing (Bhadain's advisor and campaign manager, who is also the son of former minister Kishore Deerpalsing ), were investigated by ICAC in 2019 for suspicious recruitment practices when he

9425-797: The Bank of Mauritius, rehabilitating the coast line of Cap Malheurueux , renovating the Port Louis waterfront, upgrading roads, constructing the Harbour Cruise Terminal in Port Louis for the Mauritius Port Authority, and upgrading the navigation channels at Port Mathurin , Pointe La Gueule, and Baie aux Huîtres in Rodrigues , among other projects. PAD & Co. Ltd's owner, Alain Hao Thyn Voon,

9570-639: The Darwinian insight that acts of self-sacrifice and cooperation contribute to the functioning of the group and hence improve the odds of survival for members of said group. Race can be used as an example of in-group and out-group tendencies because society often categorizes individuals into groups based on race (Caucasian, African American, Latino, etc.). One study that examined race and empathy found that participants receiving nasally administered oxytocin had stronger reactions to pictures of in-group members making pained faces than to pictures of out-group members with

9715-502: The Sydney diocese. Anna Bligh , who won the 2009 Queensland State election, has been accused of nepotism by giving her husband Greg Withers a position as the Office of Climate Change head. Football Federation Australia was led by Frank Lowy from its inception in 2004 until his term limit exit in 2015. His son, Steven Lowy , who had little direct involvement in high level sports governance

9860-400: The additional planning task of balancing family and business demands. There are five critical issues where the needs of the family and the demands of the business overlap—and require parallel planning action to ensure that business success does not create a family or business disaster. Fairness is a fundamental issue in family business decision-making. Solutions that are perceived as fair by

10005-466: The business requires those to stay competitive, the interests of the entire family and the business are not aligned. Nepotism has been listed as a problem with family businesses. Forbes writes that "nepotism in family businesses is a phenomenon that has been present for centuries" and that it is "prevalent" in such businesses. Nepotism-based favouritism contributes to a poorer workplace atmosphere and tension, which can impact worker contributions to

10150-451: The business. Involving someone else to manage the company requires the founder to be more conscious and formal in balancing personal interests with the interests of the business because they can no longer do this alignment automatically—someone else is involved. The second situation is when more than one person owns the business and no single person has the power and support of the other owners to determine collective interests. For example, if

10295-494: The charges as they arise. Former President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapaksa , has been accused of nepotism, appointing three brothers to run important ministries and giving out other political positions to relatives, regardless of their merit. During his presidency, the Rajapaksa family held the ministries of finance , defence , ports and aviation , and highways and road development . The president's brother, Gotabhaya Rajapaksa ,

10440-519: The community), dividends, and family unity. The Ownership circle may include family members, investors and/or employee-owners. An owner is concerned with financial capital (business performance and dividends). The Management circle typically includes non-family members who are employed by the family business. Family members may also be employees. An employee is concerned with social capital (reputation), emotional capital (career opportunities, bonuses and fair performance measures). A few people—for example,

10585-403: The conflict. Similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals. These studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. Further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. The in-group bias

10730-517: The country for decades. Elena Băsescu , the daughter of President Traian Băsescu , was elected in 2009 to the European Parliament , despite the fact that she had no significant professional or political experience. Singapore's government has been the target of numerous charges of nepotism, with several members of the Prime Minister 's family holding high ranking posts. Lee Kuan Yew , who

10875-437: The daughter and son of respectively former minister Luc Vandenbossche and former minister Karel De Gucht . In Brazil, nepotism heavily affects the integrity of public institutions, including audit bodies responsible for overseeing executive decisions. Studies indicate that around 30% of audit judges are directly related to other politicians, creating a network of familial ties that can lead to conflicts of interest and reduce

11020-492: The degree of similarity in beliefs, attitudes, and values perceived to exist between individuals. This theory also states that dissimilarity increases negative orientations towards others. When applied to racial discrimination , the belief congruence theory argues that the perceived dissimilarity of beliefs has more of an impact on racial discrimination than does race itself. Research finds evidence of in-group bias in police investigations and judicial decisions. Oxytocin

11165-433: The development of family business and succession process: the size of the family, in relative terms the volume of business, and suitability to lead the organization, in terms of managerial ability, technical and commitment. Arieu proposed a model in order to classify family firms into four scenarios: political, openness, foreign management and natural succession . Potential successors who had professional experience outside

11310-424: The differing interests of family members and/or the interests of one or more family members on the one hand and the interests of the business on the other hand require the people involved to have the competencies, character and commitment to do this work. Family-owned companies present special challenges to those who run them. They can be quirky, developing unique cultures and procedures as they grow and mature. That

11455-592: The effectiveness of independent oversight (Transparency International, 2023). This high rate of nepotism often results in biased audit outcomes, eroding public trust and obstructing fair governance. The presence of such familial networks within regulatory bodies not only compromises transparency but also perpetuates inefficiency and corruption, limiting reform efforts across Brazil’s political landscape (Instituto Não Aceito Corrupção, 2022). Prime Minister Hun Sen and senior members of Parliament are known for their hand in getting family members into government positions. In

11600-597: The experiment, there was a significant increase in participants requesting for partners with the same-shape choice as it progressed, although the initial choice of shape had no effect on payoffs. Toward the end of the experiment, this number stood at a substantial 87%, indicating the presence of in-group favoritism. Their study supported the hypothesis that the formation of cultural groups alters selective pressure facing individuals, and thus leads to certain behavioral traits being advantageous. Thus, if such selective pressures were present in past civilizations, where membership in

11745-414: The family and business stakeholders are more likely to be accepted and supported. Fair process helps create organizational justice by engaging family members, whether as owners and employees, in a series of practical steps to address and resolve critical issues. Fair process lays a foundation for continued family participation over generations. The challenge faced by family businesses and their stakeholders,

11890-409: The family business is basically owned and operated by one person, that person usually does the necessary balancing automatically. For example, the founder may decide the business needs to build a new plant and take less money out of the business for a period so the business can accumulate cash needed to expand. In making this decision, the founder is balancing his personal interests (taking cash out) with

12035-436: The family business may decide to leave the firm to found a new one, either with or without the support of the family. Instead, successors tend to be characterized by professional experience only within the family business. The education of potential successors is a critical issue in the succession process because it affects the endowment of managerial capabilities of the firm. If the succession process has been planned in advance,

12180-428: The family enterprise. However, family participation as managers and/or owners of a business can present unique problems because the dynamics of the family system and the dynamics of the business systems are often not in balance. The interests of the entire family may not be balanced with the interests of their business. For example, if a family needs its business to distribute funds for living expenses and retirement, but

12325-447: The family. However, family members are often involved in the operations of their family business in some capacity and, in smaller companies, usually one or more family members are the senior officers and managers. In India, many businesses that are now public companies were once family businesses. Family participation as managers and/or owners of a business can strengthen the company because family members are often loyal and dedicated to

12470-415: The family. It is a useful tool for spotting relationship patterns across generations, and decrypting seemingly irrational behavior. Family myths—sets of beliefs that are shared by the family members—can play important defensive and protective roles in families. Myths help people cope with stress and anxiety and, by prescribing ritualistic behavior patterns, will enable them to establish a common front against

12615-623: The first son of then-President Nicolas Sarkozy, asked SCPP for a financial contribution of around €10000 towards an €80000 artistic project. Because he was not a SCPP member, the request was automatically rejected. Pierre Sarkozy then went to the Élysée which led to an Élysée aide contacting the SCPP, and SCPP president Marc Guez assuring the issue would soon be favorably resolved. According to Abeille Music president and SCPP member Yves Riesel, however, this would not happen as SCPP's financial help has been restricted to members only for months. In Greece it

12760-467: The formation of cultural groups . Symbolic markers in certain conditions can result in trivial groupings developing into cultural groups. The formation of such cultural groups then results in a higher degree of in-group favoritism. Efferson, Lalive and Fehr published such a study in 2008, utilizing a series of coordination games to mimic cooperation between individuals. The study found that cultural groups were able to form endogenously through creation of

12905-469: The founder or a senior family member—may hold all three roles: family member, owner and employee. These individuals are intensely connected to the family business, and concerned with any or all of the above sources of value creation. A genogram is an organization chart for the family. It is an enhanced family tree that shows not only family events like births and deaths, but also indicates the relationships (close, conflicted, cut-off, etc.) among individuals in

13050-598: The government of Mauricio Macri set a limit on nepotism through Decree 93/2018 establishing that "appointments of people could no longer be made, under any modality, throughout the National Public Sector, who have some kinship link both in straight line as well as in a collateral line up to the second degree, with the President and Vice President of the Nation, Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers, Ministers and other officials with

13195-405: The hostility by engaging the boys in situations of mutual interdependence, an effort which eventually resulted in relative harmony between the two groups. Sherif concluded from this experiment that negative attitudes toward out-groups arise when groups compete for limited resources. However, he also theorized that inter-group frictions could be reduced and positive relations created, but only in

13340-444: The in-group and out-group, and similarities among in-group members (including the self) on stereotypical dimensions; and (2) self-enhancement which, because the self-concept is defined in terms of group membership, seeks behaviorally and perceptually to favor the in-group over the out-group. Social identities are cognitively represented as group prototypes that describe and prescribe beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors that optimize

13485-457: The in-group as closer to the self than the out-group. Emotional social reasoning is also significant with groups of prior experience because the categorizations have developed over a longer duration leading to the development of emotions. Alternatively, the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex is activated when individuals categorize themselves into groups with whom they have no prior experience with such as randomly being divided into teams to compete in

13630-401: The in-group favoritism subside as a superordinate goal shared between groups was now present. Research analyzing articles about 35 inter-group conflicts (e.g., Falklands War ) by comparing the corresponding language versions of Misplaced Pages (e.g., English, Spanish) found evidence for in-group favoritism: While the " in-group " was systematically preferred and presented in a more favorable light,

13775-539: The inclusion of self-identity in the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior has many similarities to social identity theory and its extension, self-categorization theory. According to social identity theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories. When people define and evaluate themselves in terms of a self-inclusive social category (e.g., sex, class, team) two processes come into play: (1) categorization, which perceptually accentuates differences between

13920-419: The incumbent and successor usually show higher levels of satisfaction. Particularly important is the incumbent’s willingness to step down. The incumbent gradually gives away his power to the successor. This happens step by step and may take several years. Such a transfer of power can take the form of the incumbent providing the successor with entrepreneurial resources that foster the firm's innovation. Eventually,

14065-409: The individuals group position in intergroup conflicts. As males were the ones who were frequently at the forefront of such conflicts in the past, and thus bore the majority of the costs of conflicts in terms of injury or death, evolution may have favored a greater sensitivity in males in situations which resulted in an advantageous payoff for their in-group. Thus males tended to show in-group biases from

14210-651: The land in East Timor . Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with the former Indonesian president's family companies. Nepotism is common in Mauritian politics , with many relatives and friends of high-ranking politicians being appointed high-ranking positions and associated companies being granted government contracts. Since

14355-473: The libertarian president Javier Milei takes office - who campaigned criticizing the political "caste", an entelechy built to denigrate traditional political parties and among whose characteristics is that of appointing friends and family to public positions on a discretionary basis - and in one of his first measures he modifies the Mauricio Macri's Decree 93/2018 to be able to grant his sister, Karina Milei ,

14500-583: The modern age. In October 2009, Jean Sarkozy , the second son of the President of the French Republic Nicolas Sarkozy , was poised to become the director of the major EPAD  [ fr ] authority despite lacking any higher education degree and professional experience. In 2008 he was voted regional councillor of Neuilly-sur-Seine , the town of which his father had previously been mayor. In September 2009, rap -producer Pierre Sarkozy,

14645-465: The most prolific generational families involved in Indian cinema, have been known for bringing their children into the industry with their endorsements and influence. In June 2020, a fresh debate on nepotism followed soon after the suicide of actor Sushant Singh Rajput , which fans believe was in reaction to efforts by Bollywood insiders to boycott him. Filmmaker Karan Johar , who Rajput had worked with in

14790-438: The most trivial criteria imaginable". In Tajfel's studies, participants were split into groups by flipping a coin, and each group then was told to appreciate a certain style of painting none of the participants were familiar with when the experiment began. What Tajfel and his colleagues discovered was that—regardless of the facts that a) participants did not know each other, b) their groups were completely meaningless, and c) none of

14935-429: The needs of the business (expansion). The assets that are owned by the family, in most family businesses, are hard to separate from the assets that belong to the business. Balancing competing interests often become difficult in three situations. The first situation is when the founder wants to change the nature of their involvement in the business. Usually the founder begins this transition by involving others to manage

15080-430: The next, if the family fails to address the psychological issues they face. Applying psychodynamic concepts will help to explain behaviour and will enable the family to prepare for life cycle transitions and other issues that may arise. Family-run organisations need a new understanding and a broader perspective on the human dynamics of family firms with two complementary frameworks, psychodynamic and family systematic. When

15225-425: The norms of a behaviorally relevant group membership, particularly if the identity is a salient basis for self-definition. If the group membership is not salient, then people's behavior and feelings should be in accord with their own personal and idiosyncratic characteristics rather than group norms. On the other hand, the self-identity theory poses that the self is often a reflection of expected norms and practices in

15370-457: The number of university T-shirts being worn on college campuses following either a win or loss at the football game. They found that the Monday after a win, there were more T-shirts being worn, on average, than following a loss. In another set of studies, done in the 1980s by Jennifer Crocker and colleagues using the minimal group paradigm, individuals with high self-esteem who suffered a threat to

15515-436: The organisation. The interest of one family member may not be aligned with another family member. For example, a family member who is an owner may want to sell the business to maximize their return, but a family member who is an owner and also a manager may want to keep the company because it represents their career and they want their children to have the opportunity to work in the company. The challenge for business families

15660-467: The outside world. They provide a rationale for the way people behave, but because much of what makes up a family myth takes place deep beneath the surface, they also conceal the true issues, problems, and conflicts. Although these family myths can turn into a blueprint for family action, they can also turn into straitjackets, reducing a family's flexibility and capacity to respond to new situations. All businesses require planning, but business families face

15805-438: The participants had any inclination as to which "style" they like better—participants almost always "liked the members of their own group better and they rated the members of their in-group as more likely to have pleasant personalities". By having a more positive impression of individuals in the in-group, individuals are able to boost their own self-esteem as members of that group. Robert Cialdini and his research team looked at

15950-548: The pensions and environment at 35 in 2005. Alexander De Croo , the son of former speaker of the Belgian parliament Herman De Croo, ran for the leadership of his father's party Open VLD at age 33. Finally there is the example of Maya Detiège , the daughter of former mayor of the city of Antwerp Leona Detiège, who herself is the daughter of the former mayor of Antwerp Frans Detiège. Among other examples are former minister Freya Van Den Bossche and senator Jean-Jacques De Gucht , being

16095-440: The phenomenon of in-group favoritism are realistic conflict theory and social identity theory . Realistic conflict theory proposes that intergroup competition, and sometimes intergroup conflict, arises when two groups have opposing claims to scarce resources. In contrast, social identity theory posits a psychological drive for positively distinct social identities as the general root cause of in-group favoring behavior. In 1906,

16240-634: The position of General Secretary of the Presidency. Less than two months later, Francisco Adorni, the brother of the government spokesperson Manuel Adorni , took a position as an advisor in the Ministry of Defense. Shortly after his appointment as the Anglican Archbishop of Sydney in 2001, Peter Jensen was accused, in an Australian Broadcasting Corporation interview, of nepotism after nominating his brother Phillip Jensen as Dean of Sydney and appointing his wife Christine Jensen to an official position in

16385-437: The presence of an overarching goal, which could only be achieved with the two groups' cooperation. According to social identity theory , as well as terror management theory , one of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem . The desire to view one's self positively is transferred onto the group, creating a tendency to view one's own group in a positive light, and by comparison, outside groups in

16530-437: The primary problems they faced in their operations. Furthermore, 70% of Maltese businesses have also stated that close links between businessmen and politicians lead to corruption. These rates were higher compared to those of other EU member states, of which only 37% (nepotism and patronage) and 35% (corruption) felt that such issues were problematic. Romanian Communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu 's family members "dominated"

16675-504: The rank and hierarchy of Minister. The spouse and the Cohabitant Union are included. " The Kirchnerist movement has been openly accused that it believes in nepotism, treating meritocracy as a pejorative concept. The government's ministries and secretariats are reportedly plagued with friends, family and supporters of the current party leaders, many of whom have been criticized for being incompetent at their jobs. On December 10, 2023,

16820-472: The ranking of candidates on party lists for elections and a candidate's place on a list determines who is elected. Another justification for the phenomenon is the importance of name recognition for collecting votes. Claims of nepotism have been made against Bruno Tobback , the son of senator and former minister Louis Tobback , a member of the Flemish socialists, became the Belgian federal government's minister for

16965-455: The research reviewed shows that oxytocin enables the development of trust, specifically towards individuals with similar characteristics—categorized as 'in-group' members—promoting cooperation with and favoritism towards such individuals. This bias of oxytocin-induced goodwill towards those with features and characteristics perceived to be similar may have evolved as a biological basis for sustaining in-group cooperation and protection, fitting with

17110-579: The result of a negative self-image , which they believe is then extended to the group. Ma-Kellams et al. theorized that "ingroup derogation may be more culturally normative and less troubling for East Asians" as evidenced by the fact that East Asians were also likely to report high levels of positive affect (emotion) towards members of their in-group, demonstrating ambivalence towards the unfavorable characteristics they had acknowledged about their in-group. According to Ma-Kellam et al., culturally-ingrained attitudes and beliefs, rather than low self-esteem, may play

17255-483: The role. Lowy had also been accused of nepotism regarding his sons in his corporate dealings as founder of Westfield Group . On 21 February 2017, President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev created the position of Vice President of Azerbaijan , then appointed his wife Mehriban Aliyeva to the position. Since 1993, the presidency of Azerbaijan has always been in the hands of a member of the Aliyev family: in 1993, Heydar Aliyev

17400-399: The same expression. This shows that oxytocin may be implicated in our ability to empathize with individuals of different races, with individuals of one race potentially biased towards helping individuals of the same race than individuals of another race when they are experiencing pain. Oxytocin has also been implicated in lying when lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. In

17545-406: The same roles may act differently because some roles are valued over others. For example, a working mother may have less time to spend with her child as opposed to a mother that does not work. Behaviors are reflective of the identities that are held higher hierarchically by people, so people act out in self-worth and self-meaning according to these hierarchies. Someone who holds the identity of being

17690-466: The second group. In both groups participants were awarded just 1 point for mis-coordinating. During each turn participants were also allowed to choose a payoff-irrelevant marker (circle or triangle). Players from both subpopulations were mixed to create a coordination problem, and every turn, an unidentified player from each subpopulation would be randomly switched. The experiment created a situation in which participants were strongly incentivized to develop

17835-414: The self is assimilated to the perceived in-group prototype which can be thought of as a set of perceived in-group norms such that self-perception, beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors are defined in terms of the group prototype. Thus, social identities should influence behavior through the mediating role of group norms. People will be more likely to engage in a particular behavior if it is in accord with

17980-519: The self-concept exhibited greater ingroup biases than did people with low self-esteem who suffered a threat to the self-concept. While some studies have supported this notion of a negative correlation between self-esteem and in-group bias, other researchers have found that individuals with low self-esteem showed more bias toward both in-group and out-group members. Some studies have even shown that high-self-esteem groups showed more bias than did lower self-esteem groups. This research may suggest that there

18125-518: The sociologist William Sumner posited that humans are a species that join together in groups by their very nature. However, he also maintained that humans had an innate tendency to favor their own group over others, proclaiming how "each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exists in its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders". This is seen on the group level with ingroup–outgroup bias. When experienced in larger groups such as tribes, ethnic groups , or nations, it

18270-530: The successor gains all the authority and influence while the incumbent steps down, leaves to company completely, or remains as an advisor (Handler, 1990) . An international body called International Council for Family Business (ICFB) having professor Alain Ndedi as Board of Trustees chairman, is assisting worldwide the private sector and non for profit organisations (Universities, Foundations, etc) to develop effective and successful planning process. Successfully balancing

18415-425: The tendencies of a group, often people reconfigure their intragroup representations or identities. Certain prototypes form about these groups that reaffirm rules that members of the group are encouraged to follow. Shared information and views are discussed more often than novel and unshared information within a group, therefore a norm is established where the majority views are perpetuated and others silenced. This norm

18560-490: The theory failed to address all of the nuances. Ma-Kellams et al. also found that, compared to individualist cultures, people from collectivist cultures, such as East Asian cultures, tended to judge their own group members less favorably than they judged outsiders, whereas people from individualist cultures were inclined to judge members of their own group more favorably than they judged outsiders. Social identity theory and Freudian theorists explain in-group derogation as

18705-601: The toll-expressway company Jasamarga (monopolized by Tutut), the national car project Timor (monopolized by Bambang and Tommy), and the cinema market (monopolized by 21 Cineplex , which is owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km (14,000 sq mi) of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m (1,100,000 sq ft) of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of

18850-535: The way for his son Arvin Boolell , nephews Satish Boolell, Anil Gayan, and Sanjay Bhuckory, and son-in-law Sushil Kushiram to enter politics. The Duval dynasty started with ex- Lord mayor and minister Gaetan Duval, followed by his sons Xavier and Richard as well as grandson Adrien. Lall Jugnauth was the first of his clan to enter politics in the 1950s and was followed by his cousins Aneerood and Ashock as well as nephew Pravind. Abdool Razack Mohamed, who migrated from India in

18995-413: The world's largest family-run businesses are Walmart (United States), Volkswagen Group (Germany), Samsung Group (Korea) and Tata Group (India). The "Global Family Business Index" comprises the largest 500 family firms around the globe. In this index—published for a first time in 2015 by Center for Family Business University of St. Gallen and EY —for a privately held firm, a firm is classified as

19140-515: The worst rail disaster in the history of the country). Nepotism in India is common in politics, judiciary, business, the film industry, religious circles, and many other types of organizations. Since the 1980s, Indian politics has become dynastic, possibly due to the absence of elected party organization, independent civil society associations that mobilize support for a party, and centralized financing of elections. One example of dynastic politics has been

19285-561: Was a lease of 60 years on 2 acres of prime beachfront state-owned land in Grande Rivière Noire, in the exclusive precinct of Tamarin in Black River . As part of the deal, Rawoo's family will acquire the lease for Rs 15.05 million and will onsell the lease for Rs 250 million, generating a profit of around Rs 235 million. In August 2020, V. Gobin, a 75-year-old retired schoolteacher and father of Attorney General Maneesh Gobin,

19430-468: Was a minister. In March 2020 Harry Ganoo, the retired brother of Minister Alan Ganoo , was nominated as the new president du Civil Service College Mauritius a few months after the November 2019 General Elections. Until mid-2020, construction company PAD & Co. Ltd was awarded a string of major contracts such as constructing the new airport control tower, a new weather radar at Trou aux Cerfs , renovating

19575-475: Was elected president of Azerbaijan, and after his death in a United States hospital in 2003, his son Ilham Aliyev became president and has been since then. His regime has been accused for a lack of democratic freedoms and press freedom. Over the past decade, criticism has been growing over the creation of political dynasties in Belgium. This phenomenon has been explained by the fact that prominent party members control

19720-652: Was finally limited when Pope Innocent XII issued the bull Romanum decet Pontificem , in 1692. The papal bull prohibited popes in all times from bestowing estates, offices, or revenues on any relative, with the exception that one qualified relative (at most) could be made a cardinal. In the second book of the Kural literature , which forms a manual for governments and corporations, Valluvar suggests about nepotism and favouritism thus: If you choose an unfit person for your job just because you love and you like him, he will lead you to endless follies. According to him, nepotism

19865-460: Was given the post of Defence Secretary . He also controlled the armed forces, the police and the Coast Guard, and was responsible for immigration and emigration. Rajapaksa appointed his brother Basil Rajapaksa as minister of Economic Development. Together, the Rajapaksa brothers controlled over 70% of Sri Lanka's public budget. Mahinda Rajapaksa's eldest brother, Chamal Rajapaksa , was appointed as

20010-656: Was nominated as Chairman of the Mahatma Gandhi Institute and the Rabindranath Tagore Institute. Maneesh Gobin was elected to Parliament within the ruling MSM government in 2014 and 2019 and his father V. Gobin was elected once in 1987. A week earlier, Rishikesh Hurdoyal, the brother of MSM Minister of Civil Service Vikram Hurdoyal, was nominated as chairman and President of the Mauritius Shipping Corporation Ltd, in addition to being

20155-450: Was nominated as his replacement by Frank, and was elected unopposed by a board strongly loyal to Frank. Steven's introduction exacerbated existing governance issues, with factional opposition led by City Football Group causing FIFA intervention to be threatened. Eventually governance reforms were forced through despite opposition from the Lowy family, and it ended with Steven Lowy resigning from

20300-702: Was not present in September. Women displayed no significant in-group favoritism throughout. The experiment suggested that group identities are flexible and can change over time. Researchers theorized that in-group bias was strong in June, as the competition to be the Democratic nominee in the elections was still recent and thus salient. A lack of actual electoral conflict (against the Republicans ) caused perception of salient groupings to remain throughout August. Only in September did

20445-460: Was not present in women. The study aims to identify ethnic discrimination in Israeli Jewish society, and was conducted on 996 Israeli undergraduates. Groups were separated based on whether the participant's name was typically ethnically Eastern or Ashkenazic . Similar to a dictator game, subjects were instructed to divide a sum of money (20 NIS ) between themselves and another player. Player A

20590-573: Was prime minister from 1959 to 1990, preceded his son Lee Hsien Loong . Other family members holding high positions include the elder Lee’s daughter, Lee Wei Ling , the director of the National Neurological Institute, his other son, Lee Hsien Yang , the chief executive officer of Singapore Telecommunications from 1995 to 2007 and the younger Lee's wife Ho Ching , who was appointed chief executive officer of state holding investment company Temasek Holdings . The family members dispute

20735-500: Was told that any money sent over to Player B would be tripled, and Player B would receive details of the experiment, including the name of Player A and the transferred sum. Subsequently, Player B would have a choice of whether to send any money back. The experiment found that despite sharing similar average transfer values (10.63 for women and 11.42 for men), women did not display significant in-group biases when it came to recipients with either Ashkenazic or Eastern sounding names. However,

20880-500: Was widely criticized by intellectuals, NGOs and even members of Pakatan Harapan party, who claimed it contravened principles of merit and fairness. Due to its small native population, Malta has an entrenched culture of nepotism which became more evident since the country gained independence from the British Empire in 1964. In a Eurobarometer survey published in 2023, 55% of Maltese businesses reported that nepotism and patronage were

21025-433: Was widely seen as an act of nepotism. Inheritance has been viewed by some as a form of nepotism. Nepotism in organizations leads to monopolization of power because when members involved in institutional decision-making are related, decisions made within institutions risk favoring a group of closely connected people. Nepotism can also occur within organizations, when a person is employed due to their familial ties. It

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