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86-619: Plains Cree ( endonym : ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ nēhiyawēwin ; alternatively: ᐸᐢᑳᐧᐃᐧᓃᒧᐃᐧᐣ paskwâwinîmowin "language of the prairie people") is a dialect of the Algonquian language , Cree , which is the most populous Canadian indigenous language . Plains Cree is considered a dialect of the Cree-Montagnais language or a dialect of the Cree language that is distinct from the Montagnais language. Plains Cree

172-406: A fricative , nasal , or y . The coda , when it occurs, is either [s] or [h] but many Plains Cree words end in a vowel . The following table describes the phonotactics of Plains Cree by the distribution of consonants and semivowels with relation to the obligatory vowel. Parentheses indicate optional components. Plains Cree is classified as a polysynthetic fusional language as a result of

258-696: A pejorative way. For example, Romani people often prefer that term to exonyms such as Gypsy (from the name of Egypt ), and the French term bohémien , bohème (from the name of Bohemia ). People may also avoid exonyms for reasons of historical sensitivity, as in the case of German names for Polish and Czech places that, at one time, had been ethnically or politically German (e.g. Danzig/ Gdańsk , Auschwitz/ Oświęcim and Karlsbad/ Karlovy Vary ); and Russian names for non-Russian locations that were subsequently renamed or had their spelling changed (e.g. Kiev/ Kyiv ). In recent years, geographers have sought to reduce

344-581: A phonological process. In other cases, the speaker can freely select from free-variant allophones on personal habit or preference, but free-variant allophones are still selected in the specific context, not the other way around. Another example of an allophone is assimilation , in which a phoneme is to sound more like another phoneme. One example of assimilation is consonant voicing and devoicing , in which voiceless consonants are voiced before and after voiced consonants, and voiced consonants are devoiced before and after voiceless consonants. An allotone

430-466: A component of a syllable onset , as in ᐍ wē , ᐯ pē , ᐻ pwē , ᑌ tē , etc. The exception is ᐦ h , which always has the same representation, as in ᐁᐦ ēh or ᐦᐁ hē . The status of the glottal stop , /ʔ/ , as a phoneme in Plains Cree is uncertain. It was recorded in the word ēhaʔ ' yes ' (transcribed ähaʔ ) by Leonard Bloomfield , who stated that

516-560: A cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition. Whenever a user's speech is vocalized for a given phoneme, it is slightly different from other utterances, even for the same speaker. That has led to some debate over how real and how universal phonemes really are (see phoneme for details). Only some of

602-525: A different pattern with respect to voicing. Plains Cree ᑊ p /p/ , ᐟ t /t/ , ᐠ k /k/ , ᐨ c /t͡s/ , and also ᐢ s /s/ normally correspond to the Michif sounds p /p/ , t /t/ , k /k/ , ch /t͡ʃ/ , and sh /ʃ/ , which in Michif do not have voiced allophones. Michif has voiced sounds b /b/ , d /d/ , g /ɡ/ , j /d͡ʒ/ , and zh /ʒ/ which are distinct phonemes, and in some cases

688-658: A different writing system. For instance, Deutschland is the endonym for the country that is also known by the exonyms Germany and Germania in English and Italian , respectively, Alemania and Allemagne in Spanish and French , respectively, Niemcy in Polish , Saksa and Saksamaa in Finnish and Estonian . The terms autonym , endonym , exonym and xenonym are formed by adding specific prefixes to

774-417: A dog". In this case, the contraction involved the same vowel ; the first vowel is taken and included in the second word in its long form. When the contraction involves different vowels , the first vowel is deleted and the second is lengthened: nāpēw mīna iskwēw "a man and a woman" is reduced to nāpēw mīn īskwēw . Contraction does not always occur, and the word boundary may also be distinguished by

860-440: A following stop or affricate; these are not separate phonemes. Pre-aspiration can uniquely distinguish words. For example, compare the simple ᐠ k and cluster ᕽ hk in ᐑᒋᐦᐃᐠ wīcihik ' help me! ' and ᐑᒋᐦᐃᕽ wīcihihk ' help him! ' . Plains Cree is often described as having seven contrastive vowels, three short and four long. However, northern Plains Cree has only three long vowels. These vowels in

946-405: A given context, and using a different allophone for a phoneme would cause confusion or make the speaker sound non-native, the allophones are said to be complementary . The allophones then complement each other, and one of them is not used in a situation in which the usage of another is standard. For complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in

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1032-554: A neutral name may be preferred so as to not offend anyone. Thus, an exonym such as Brussels in English could be used instead of favoring either one of the local names ( Dutch / Flemish : Brussel ; French : Bruxelles ). Other difficulties with endonyms have to do with pronunciation, spelling, and word category . The endonym may include sounds and spellings that are highly unfamiliar to speakers of other languages, making appropriate usage difficult if not impossible for an outsider. Over

1118-432: A number of (dialect-dependent) allophones of the phoneme /t/ : In addition, the following allophones of /t/ are found in (at least) some dialects of American(ised) English; However, speakers may become aware of the differences if – for example – they contrast the pronunciations of the following words: A flame that is held in front of the lips while those words are spoken flickers more for

1204-456: A text sample which includes this word without a glottal stop, and in his synopsis of Plains Cree sounds no mention of this sound is made. The same word also occurs in Michif , a language derived in part from Plains Cree. There it appears with a final consonant (and nasalized vowels), as aenhenk ' yes ' . There is a degree of variation in the sounds ᐨ c /t͡s/ and ᐢ s /s/ . On

1290-405: A word are replaced by /c/ before the diminutive suffixes /es/ , /esis/ , etc. Thus, nitēm "my horse" would become nicēmisis "my little horse" and atimw- /aθemw/ "dog" would realize as acimosis "little dog". Palatalization to indicate diminution extends even to internal changes within the stem . This is why the statement yōtin "it is windy" can change to yōcin to say that "it

1376-851: Is [iː] ; ᐁ ē /eː/ is close-mid [eː] ; ᐆ ō /oː/ is typically close-mid [oː] but its range includes close [uː] ; and ᐋ ā /aː/ ranges from front open [aː] to back open [ɑː] . The description of ᐁ ē /eː/ must be further qualified to account for geographic variation. Although this sound is [eː] in southern Plains Cree, it becomes closer farther north, becoming [iː] and merging with /iː/ in northern Plains Cree, as it has done also in neighbouring Woods Cree. Contrast in vowel length can be seen in such pairs as: ᓴᑲᐦᐃᑲᐣ sakahikan nail vs     ᓵᑲᐦᐃᑲᐣ sākahikan lake ᓴᑲᐦᐃᑲᐣ {vs} ᓵᑲᐦᐃᑲᐣ sakahikan {} sākahikan nail {} lake ᓂᐱᐩ nipiy water vs     ᓃᐱᐩ nīpiy leaf ᓂᐱᐩ {vs} ᓃᐱᐩ nipiy {} nīpiy water {} leaf The vowel /i/

1462-578: Is a tonic allophone, such as the neutral tone in Standard Mandarin . There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction. Because the choice among allophones is seldom under conscious control, few people realize their existence. English-speakers may be unaware of differences between

1548-402: Is a little windy". Word-final short vowels tend to be subject to apocope except for when the stem is syllabic . That is, the word /sīsīp-a/ would become sīsīp "duck" but /nisk-a/ remains niska "goose" because the stem is composed of only a single syllable . Similarly, post-consonantal word-final /w/ is lost. In the case of the Plains Cree word for "dog" /atimwa/ , the /w/

1634-469: Is chosen for the phoneme. However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than that allows. In such cases, a common convention is to use the "elsewhere condition" to decide the allophone that stands for the phoneme. The "elsewhere" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules. For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern

1720-435: Is day-break". Also, the combination of a long vowel and a short vowel deletes the short vowel . Therefore, nīpā "in the dark" and ohtē "walk" form nīpāhtēw "he walks in the dark". This deletion is true whether the short vowel occurs before or after the long vowel . When two short vowels occur in sequence, however, it is the second that deletes. For instance, the stem ositiyi "his foot/feet" combines with

1806-444: Is inserted when morphemes with non-syllabic endings are followed by morpheme-initial consonants, such as when the transitive animate conjunct ending - at is followed by the third person plural marker - k . The result is not atk but rather acik . Note the palatalization of the /t-i/ sequence. This insertion does not occur before semivowels such as /w/ or in certain specific combinations. Because Plains Cree does not accept

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1892-462: Is most commonly used. The changes to Hanyu Pinyin were not only financially costly but were unpopular with the locals, who opined that the Hanyu Pinyin versions were too difficult for non-Chinese or non-Mandarin speakers to pronounce. The government eventually stopped the changes by the 1990s, which has led to some place names within a locality having differing spellings. For example, Nee Soon Road and

1978-698: Is not its Dutch exonym. Old place names that have become outdated after renaming may afterward still be used as historicisms . For example, even today one would talk about the Siege of Leningrad , not the Siege of St. Petersburg because at that time (1941–1944) the city was called Leningrad. Likewise, one would say that Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg in 1724, not in Kaliningrad ( Калининград ), as it has been called since 1946. Likewise, Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul )

2064-554: Is now spelled Xinyi . However, districts like Tamsui and even Taipei itself are not spelled according to Hanyu Pinyin spelling rules. As a matter of fact, most names of Taiwanese cities are still spelled using Chinese postal romanization , including Taipei , Taichung , Taitung , Keelung , and Kaohsiung . During the 1980s, the Singapore Government encouraged the use of Hanyu Pinyin spelling for place names, especially those with Teochew, Hokkien or Cantonese names, as part of

2150-640: Is one of five main dialects of Cree in this second sense, along with Woods Cree, Swampy Cree, Moose Cree, and Atikamekw. Although no single dialect of Cree is favored over another, Plains Cree is the one that is the most widely used. Out of the 116,500 speakers of the Cree language, the Plains Cree dialect is spoken by about 34,000 people primarily in Saskatchewan and Alberta but also in Manitoba and Montana . The number of people who can speak an Aboriginal language, such as Plains Cree, has increased. For example, in

2236-600: Is one of multiple possible spoken sounds – or phones  – used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, the voiceless plosive [ t ] (as in stop [ˈstɒp] ) and the aspirated form [ tʰ ] (as in top [ˈtʰɒp] ) are allophones for the phoneme /t/ , while these two are considered to be different phonemes in some languages such as Central Thai . Similarly, in Spanish , [ d ] (as in dolor [doˈloɾ] ) and [ ð ] (as in nada [ˈnaða] ) are allophones for

2322-426: Is only lost after the short vowel /a/ is dropped when the plural suffix - k is added. Thus, the word is realized atim while its plural form is atimwak . In normal, everyday spoken Plains Cree, several phonological contractions are observed. For instance, final vowels can merge with the initial vowel of the following word. This is how the phrase nāpēw mīna atim is reduced to nāpēw mīn ātim "a man and

2408-565: Is pronounced /'pasa'kwa:pi'simowin/. This rule holds even in cases where the penultimate syllable is long. The syllable itself consists of an optional onset , a peak obligatory vowel and an optional coda . The onset can be non-syllabic or a consonant , sometimes followed by a w . Although any vowel can occur in any position in the word, the long vowels /iː/, /eː/, and /oː/ are found only rarely in initial and final positions. Plains Cree does not permit vowel clusters ; clusters of identical non-syllabics; or fricatives followed by

2494-540: Is still called Constantinople ( Κωνσταντινούπολη ) in Greek, although the name was changed in Turkish to dissociate the city from its Greek past between 1923 and 1930 (the name Istanbul itself derives from a Medieval Greek phrase ). Prior to Constantinople , the city was known in Greek as Byzantion ( Greek : Βυζάντιον , Latin : Byzantium ), named after its mythical founder, Byzas . Following independence from

2580-437: Is that vowels are nasal only before a nasal consonant in the same syllable; elsewhere, they are oral. Therefore, by the "elsewhere" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic, and nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes. In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the languages of the world than the other allophones, because it reflects

2666-559: Is the human tendency towards neighbours to "be pejorative rather than complimentary, especially where there is a real or fancied difference in cultural level between the ingroup and the outgroup ." For example, Matisoff notes, Khang "an opprobrious term indicating mixed race or parentage" is the Palaung name for Jingpo people and the Jingpo name for Chin people ; both the Jingpo and Burmese use

Plains Cree language - Misplaced Pages Continue

2752-407: Is the last syllable that receives primary stress , as in the word /is'kwe:w/ iskwēw "woman" or /mih'ti/ mihti "piece of firewood". Words of three syllables or more exhibit primary stress on the third syllable from the end. In this case, secondary stress falls on alternate syllables from the antepenult . One may observe, for instance, that the word pasakwāpisimowin "Shut-Eye Dance"

2838-525: Is word boundary, not phrase boundary. So voiceless variants occur at the beginning of a word, at the end of a word, and after ᐦ h /h/ or ᐢ s /s/ . The voiced variants occur in all other situations. However, other distributions of voiceless versus voiced sounds are possible. Bloomfield reported the same voicing pattern as a possibility for the phoneme ᐠ k /k/ , but did not mentioned it for ᑊ p /p/ , ᐟ t /t/ , or ᐨ c /t͡s/ . The Plains Cree component of Michif shows

2924-646: The Beijing dialect , became the official romanization method for Mandarin in the 1970s. As the Mandarin pronunciation does not perfectly map to an English phoneme , English speakers using either romanization will not pronounce the names correctly if standard English pronunciation is used. Nonetheless, many older English speakers still refer to the cities by their older English names, and even today they are often used in their traditional associations, such as Peking duck , Peking opera , and Peking University . As for Nanjing,

3010-602: The Greek root word ónoma ( ὄνομα , 'name'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃nómn̥ . The prefixes added to these terms are also derived from Greek: The terms autonym and xenonym also have different applications, thus leaving endonym and exonym as the preferred forms. Marcel Aurousseau , an Australian geographer , first used the term exonym in his work The Rendering of Geographical Names (1957). Endonyms and exonyms can be divided in three main categories: As it pertains to geographical features ,

3096-513: The Roman Empire applied the word " Walha " to foreigners they encountered and this evolved in West Germanic languages as a generic name for speakers of Celtic and later (as Celts became increasingly romanised) Romance languages; thence: During the late 20th century, the use of exonyms often became controversial. Groups often prefer that outsiders avoid exonyms where they have come to be used in

3182-543: The Singapore Armed Forces base Nee Soon Camp are both located in Yishun but retained the old spelling. Matisoff wrote, "A group's autonym is often egocentric, equating the name of the people with 'mankind in general,' or the name of the language with 'human speech'." In Basque , the term erdara/erdera is used for speakers of any language other than Basque (usually Spanish or French). Many millennia earlier,

3268-510: The Slavs are describing Germanic people as "mutes"—in contrast to themselves, "the speaking ones". The most common names of several Indigenous American tribes derive from pejorative exonyms. The name " Apache " most likely derives from a Zuni word meaning "enemy". The name " Sioux ", an abbreviated form of Nadouessioux , most likely derived from a Proto-Algonquian term, * -a·towe· ('foreign-speaking). The name " Comanche " comes from

3354-532: The Speak Mandarin Campaign to promote Mandarin and discourage the use of dialects. For example, the area of Nee Soon, named after Teochew -Peranakan businessman Lim Nee Soon (Hanyu Pinyin: Lín Yìshùn) became Yishun and the neighbourhood schools and places established following the change used the Hanyu Pinyin spelling. In contrast, Hougang is the Hanyu Pinyin spelling but the Hokkien pronunciation au-kang

3440-524: The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names defines: For example, India , China , Egypt , and Germany are the English-language exonyms corresponding to the endonyms Bhārat ( भारत ), Zhōngguó ( 中国 ), Masr ( مَصر ), and Deutschland , respectively. There are also typonyms of specific features, for example hydronyms for bodies of water. In

3526-508: The Ute word kɨmantsi meaning "enemy, stranger". The Ancestral Puebloans are also known as the "Anasazi", a Navajo word meaning "ancient enemies", and contemporary Puebloans discourage the use of the exonym. Various Native-American autonyms are sometimes explained to English readers as having literal translations of "original people" or "normal people", with implicit contrast to other first nations as not original or not normal. Although

Plains Cree language - Misplaced Pages Continue

3612-425: The ending /in/ and kinātitin "I fetch you" where it is not palatalized before the ending /etin/ . This pattern includes several important exceptions, including that of the stem wāt- "hole". Before the inanimate proximate singular suffix /i/ , one would expect the /t/ to become either /s/ or /t͡s/ but it does not. Palatalization is also found in diminutives , where all instances of /t/ in

3698-453: The insertion of the /h/ sound: mīna iskwēw and mīna(h) iskwēw respectively. Within words, short vowels may also disappear when they are unstressed , especially between [s] and [t] or [n] and [s] . In normal speech, for example, the greeting tānisi "hello" is reduced to tānsi . The stress pattern of Plains Cree is dependent on the number of syllables rather than on vowel length . For instance, in disyllabic words, it

3784-418: The locative suffix /ehk/ to produce ositiyihk "on his foot/feet". Normal patterns of vowel combination and deletion , however, are set aside during prefixation , a process in which a [t] is inserted between vowels when the personal prefixes ki- , ni- , o- , and mi- precede a stem-initial vowel. As a result, when the personal prefix for "I" ni- is affixed to the stem for "sit" apin ,

3870-632: The semi-vowels /w/ and /j/ , which are glides that act like and often follow consonants. The consonants of Plains Cree in the two standard writing systems , Cree syllabics and the Cree Latin alphabet, are listed in the following table (with IPA phonemic notation within slashes). Note that the Cree syllabics symbols chosen for this table all represent syllable codas , as in ᐁᐤ ēw , ᐁᑊ ēp , [ᐁᐟ] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) ēt , etc. The consonants are represented differently when they comprise or are

3956-557: The "language". The term survives to this day in the Slavic languages (e.g. Ukrainian німці (nimtsi); Russian немцы (nemtsy), Slovene Nemčija), and was borrowed into Hungarian , Romanian , and Ottoman Turkish (in which case it referred specifically to Austria ). One of the more prominent theories regarding the origin of the term " Slav " suggests that it comes from the Slavic root slovo (hence " Slovakia " and " Slovenia " for example), meaning 'word' or 'speech'. In this context,

4042-408: The (palatal) alveolar "light" [l] of leaf [ˈliːf] as opposed to the velar alveolar "dark" [ɫ] in feel [ˈfiːɫ] found in the U.S. and Southern England. The difference is much more obvious to a Turkish -speaker, for whom /l/ and /ɫ/ are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme. These descriptions are more sequentially broken down in

4128-411: The 2016 census, 263,840 people could speak an Aboriginal language well enough to conduct a conversation. From 1996 to 2016, the total number of people who were able to speak an Aboriginal language went up by 8%. The number of Plains Cree speakers similarly has increased along with population increases over the past 20 years. The consonant inventory of Plains Cree contains 10 or 11 sounds. This includes

4214-812: The Chinese word yeren ( 野人 ; 'wild men', 'savage', 'rustic people' ) as the name for Lisu people . As exonyms develop for places of significance for speakers of the language of the exonym, consequently, many European capitals have English exonyms, for example: In contrast, historically less-prominent capitals such as Ljubljana and Zagreb do not have English exonyms, but do have exonyms in languages spoken nearby, e.g. German : Laibach and Agram (the latter being obsolete); Italian : Lubiana and Zagabria . Madrid , Berlin , Oslo , and Amsterdam , with identical names in most major European languages , are exceptions. Some European cities might be considered partial exceptions, in that whilst

4300-638: The Greeks thought that all non-Greeks were uncultured and so called them " barbarians ", which eventually gave rise to the exonym " Berber ". Exonyms often describe others as "foreign-speaking", "non-speaking", or "nonsense-speaking". One example is the Slavic term for the Germans, nemtsi , possibly deriving from plural of nemy ("mute"); standard etymology has it that the Slavic peoples referred to their Germanic neighbors as "mutes" because they could not speak

4386-458: The Plains Cree sounds correspond to these. These cases all involve syncope of vowel i /i/ that results in a cluster of nasal consonant plus stop, affricate or sibilant . At the beginning of a word, the nasal consonant is subsequently lost. Unlike the stops and the affricate, sh /ʃ/ becomes voiced only at the beginning of a word. Plains Cree has pre-aspirated stops and a pre-aspirated affricate which are actually clusters of /h/ plus

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4472-601: The Portuguese Colónia closely reflects the Latin original. In some cases, no standardised spelling is available, either because the language itself is unwritten (even unanalysed) or because there are competing non-standard spellings. Use of a misspelled endonym is perhaps more problematic than the respectful use of an existing exonym. Finally, an endonym may be a plural noun and may not naturally extend itself to adjectival usage in another language like English, which has

4558-519: The Province of Guangdong ( 广东 ; Guǎngdōng ). However, older English exonyms are sometimes used in certain contexts, for example: Peking (Beijing; duck , opera , etc.), Tsingtao (Qingdao), and Canton (Guangdong). In some cases the traditional English exonym is based on a local Chinese variety instead of Mandarin , in the case of Xiamen , where the name Amoy is closer to the Hokkien pronunciation. In

4644-501: The Russians used the village name of Chechen , medieval Europeans took the tribal name Tatar as emblematic for the whole Mongolic confederation (and then confused it with Tartarus , a word for Hell , to produce Tartar ), and the Magyar invaders were equated with the 500-years-earlier Hunnish invaders in the same territory, and were called Hungarians . The Germanic invaders of

4730-520: The Sweetgrass Reserve in Saskatchewan in 1925, ᐨ c /t͡s/ was either alveolar [t͡s] or palatoalveolar [t͡ʃ] , but ᐢ s /s/ was normally alveolar [s] , and only abnormally palatoalveolar [ʃ] . In contrast to this, Michif words of Plains Cree origin at Turtle Mountain, North Dakota, invariably have palatoalveolar pronunciation for both of these sounds. Voicing of the stops and

4816-451: The UK in 1947, many regions and cities have been renamed in accordance with local languages, or to change the English spelling to more closely match the indigenous local name. The name Madras , now Chennai , may be a special case . When the city was first settled by English people , in the early 17th century, both names were in use. They possibly referred to different villages which were fused into

4902-565: The affricate is not contrastive in Plain Cree, which is to say that the phonemes ᑊ p /p/ , ᐟ t /t/ , ᐠ k /k/ , ᐨ c /t͡s/ have voiceless allophones [p] , [t] , [k] , [t͡s, t͡ʃ] and voiced allophones [b] , [d] , [ɡ] , [d͡z, d͡ʒ] . According to Wolfart and Carroll, the distribution of voiceless and voiced allophones is complementary: voiceless allophones occur in unvoiced phonological contexts; voiced allophones occur in voiced contexts. The context limit

4988-421: The aspirated nitrate than for the unaspirated night rate. The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin -speaker, for whom /t/ and /tʰ/ are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than for an English-speaker, who has learned since childhood to ignore the distinction. One may notice the (dialect-dependent) allophones of English /l/ such as

5074-430: The case of Beijing , the adoption of the exonym by media outlets quickly gave rise to a hyperforeignised pronunciation, with the result that many English speakers actualize the j in Beijing as / ʒ / . One exception of Pinyin standardization in mainland China is the spelling of the province Shaanxi , which is the mixed Gwoyeu Romatzyh –Pinyin spelling of the province. That is because if Pinyin were used to spell

5160-409: The case of endonyms and exonyms of language names (glossonyms), Chinese , German , and Dutch , for example, are English-language exonyms for the languages that are endonymously known as Zhōngwén ( 中文 ), Deutsch , and Nederlands , respectively. By their relation to endonyms, all exonyms can be divided into three main categories: Sometimes, a place name may be unable to use many of

5246-605: The complexity of its affix combinations. Apart from four personal prefixes , Plains Cree utilizes suffixes exclusively. Endonym An exonym (also known as xenonym ) is an established, non-native name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used primarily outside the particular place inhabited by the group or linguistic community. Exonyms exist not only for historico-geographical reasons but also in consideration of difficulties when pronouncing foreign words, or from non-systematic attempts at transcribing into

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5332-855: The endonym Nederland is singular, while all the aforementioned translations except Irish are plural. Exonyms can also be divided into native and borrowed, e.g., from a third language. For example, the Slovene exonyms Dunaj ( Vienna ) and Benetke ( Venice ) are native, but the Avar name of Paris, Париж ( Parizh ) is borrowed from Russian Париж ( Parizh ), which comes from Polish Paryż , which comes from Italian Parigi . A substantial proportion of English-language exonyms for places in continental Europe are borrowed (or adapted) from French; for example: Many exonyms result from adaptations of an endonym into another language, mediated by differences in phonetics, while others may result from translation of

5418-404: The endonym, or as a reflection of the specific relationship an outsider group has with a local place or geographical feature. According to James Matisoff , who introduced the term autonym into linguistics , exonyms can also arise from the "egocentric" tendency of in-groups to identify themselves with "mankind in general", producing an endonym that out groups would not use, while another source

5504-543: The historical event called the Nanking Massacre (1937) uses the city's older name because that was the name of the city at the time of occurrence. Likewise, many Korean cities like Busan and Incheon (formerly Pusan and Inchǒn respectively) also underwent changes in spelling due to changes in romanization, even though the Korean pronunciations have largely stayed the same. Exonyms and endonyms must not be confused with

5590-806: The letters when transliterated into an exonym because of the corresponding language's lack of common sounds. Māori , having only one liquid consonant , is an example of this here. London (originally Latin : Londinium ), for example, is known by the cognate exonyms: An example of a translated exonym is the name for the Netherlands ( Nederland in Dutch) used, respectively, in German ( Niederlande ), French ( Pays-Bas ), Italian ( Paesi Bassi ), Spanish ( Países Bajos ), Irish ( An Ísiltír ), Portuguese ( Países Baixos ) and Romanian ( Țările de Jos ), all of which mean " Low Countries ". However,

5676-468: The meaning of a word, but the result may sound non-native or even unintelligible. Native speakers of a given language perceive one phoneme in the language as a single distinctive sound and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations that are used to pronounce single phonemes. The term "allophone" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf circa 1929. In doing so, he is thought to have placed

5762-454: The new settlement. In any case, Madras became the exonym, while more recently, Chennai became the endonym. Madrasi, a term for a native of the city, has often been used derogatorily to refer to the people of Dravidian origin from the southern states of India . Allophone In phonology , an allophone ( / ˈ æ l ə f oʊ n / ; from the Greek ἄλλος , állos , 'other' and φωνή , phōnē , 'voice, sound')

5848-401: The next section. Peter Ladefoged , a renowned phonetician , clearly explains the consonant allophones of English in a precise list of statements to illustrate the language behavior. Some of these rules apply to all the consonants of English; the first item on the list deals with consonant length, items 2 through 18 apply to only selected groups of consonants, and the last item deals with

5934-434: The number of exonyms were over-optimistic and not possible to realise in an intended way. The reason would appear to be that many exonyms have become common words in a language and can be seen as part of the language's cultural heritage. In some situations, the use of exonyms can be preferred. For instance, in multilingual cities such as Brussels , which is known for its linguistic tensions between Dutch- and French-speakers,

6020-426: The phoneme /d/ , while these two are considered to be different phonemes in English (as in the difference between dare and there ). The specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, with such allophones being called positional variants , but some allophones occur in free variation . Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme usually does not change

6106-400: The phonological sequence /ww/ , however, one /w/ is dropped. When the morpheme /ahkw/ , a marker for the inclusive plural in the conjunct order, is followed by /waːw/ , the third person plural marker, the word is realized as /ahkwaːw/ . The glide /j/ is inserted between two long vowels , which is why the combination of kīsikā "be day" and āpan "be dawn" forms kīsikāyāpan "it

6192-544: The pronunciation for several names of Chinese cities such as Beijing and Nanjing has not changed for quite some time while in Mandarin Chinese (although the prestige dialect shifted from Nanjing dialect to Beijing dialect during the 19th century), they were called Peking and Nanking in English due to the older Chinese postal romanization convention, based largely on the Nanjing dialect . Pinyin , based largely on

6278-520: The propensity to use the adjectives for describing culture and language. Sometimes the government of a country tries to endorse the use of an endonym instead of traditional exonyms outside the country: Following the 1979 declaration of Hanyu Pinyin spelling as the standard romanisation of Chinese , many Chinese endonyms have successfully replaced English exonyms, especially city and most provincial names in mainland China , for example: Beijing ( 北京 ; Běijīng ), Qingdao ( 青岛 ; Qīngdǎo ), and

6364-467: The province, it would be indistinguishable from its neighboring province Shanxi , where the pronunciations of the two provinces only differ by tones, which are usually not written down when used in English. In Taiwan, however, the standardization of Hanyu Pinyin has only seen mixed results. In Taipei , most (but not all) street and district names shifted to Hanyu Pinyin. For example, the Sinyi District

6450-449: The quality of a consonant. These descriptive rules are as follows: There are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation: examples are Hawaiian and Pirahã . Here are some examples (the links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon): Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not

6536-551: The results of geographical renaming as in the case of Saint Petersburg , which became Petrograd ( Петроград ) in 1914, Leningrad ( Ленинград ) in 1924, and again Saint Petersburg ( Санкт-Петербург , Sankt-Peterbúrg ) in 1991. In this case, although Saint Petersburg has a Dutch etymology, it was never a Dutch exonym for the city between 1914 and 1991, just as Nieuw Amsterdam , the Dutch name of New York City until 1664,

6622-451: The sometimes back vowels ᐊ a and ᐋ ā are not. Within these phonemes there is a degree of allophonic variation. The short close vowels ᐃ i /i/ and ᐅ o /u/ are typically near close [ɪ] and [ʊ] , but range to close [i] and [u] . The short open vowel ᐊ a /a/ is typically open, ranging from front [a] to back [ɑ] , but its range extends to front open-mid [ɛ] and back open-mid [ʌ] . The long front close vowel ᐄ ī /iː/

6708-458: The sound occurred only in this word. In a collaborative online dictionary, Cree speakers have contributed several variants of this word, including ᐁᐦᐊ ēha (written eha and êha ), ᐁᐦᐁ ēhē (written êhê ), and ᐄᐦᐃ īhi (written îhi ). None of these forms includes a final glottal stop. However, there is no way of writing a glottal stop in the standard Latin alphabet or in Cree syllabics. Wolfart 's grammar contains

6794-428: The sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription . When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple broad transcription is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, the allophony becomes significant and things then become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, that representation

6880-470: The spelling is the same across languages, the pronunciation can differ. For example, the city of Paris is spelled the same way in French and English, but the French pronunciation [ paʁi ] is different from the English pronunciation [ ˈpærɪs ]. For places considered to be of lesser significance, attempts to reproduce local names have been made in English since the time of the Crusades . Livorno , for instance,

6966-493: The standard writing systems are listed in the following table (with IPA phonemic notation within slashes). Note that the Cree syllabics symbols chosen for this table all represent syllable nuclei which have no syllable onset. The vowels are represented differently with non-null onset, as for example with n -onset in ᓀ nē , ᓂ ni , ᓃ nī , etc. A distinction not indicated in the table is between back rounded and back unrounded. The back vowels ᐅ o and ᐆ ō are rounded, whereas

7052-686: The use of exonyms to avoid this kind of problem. For example, it is now common for Spanish speakers to refer to the Turkish capital as Ankara rather than use the Spanish exonym Angora . Another example, it is now common for Italian speakers to refer to some African states as Mauritius and Seychelles rather than use the Italian exonyms Maurizio and Seicelle . According to the United Nations Statistics Division : Time has, however, shown that initial ambitious attempts to rapidly decrease

7138-401: The variation is significant, by being detectable or perceivable, to speakers. There are two types of allophones, based on whether a phoneme must be pronounced using a specific allophone in a specific situation or whether the speaker has the unconscious freedom to choose the allophone that is used. If a specific allophone from a set of allophones that correspond to a phoneme must be selected in

7224-409: The word is realized as nitapin instead of nipin . In isolated cases, /h/ or /w/ is sometimes inserted instead of [t] , such as the word nihayān "I have it". Palatalization of the sounds /θ/ and /t/ to /s/ and /t͡s/ respectively occurs before the vowels /i/ and /iː/ as well as the consonant /j/ . For example, the stem /naːθ/ "fetch" becomes kināsin "you fetch me" before

7310-532: The years, the endonym may have undergone phonetic changes, either in the original language or the borrowing language, thus changing an endonym into an exonym, as in the case of Paris , where the s was formerly pronounced in French. Another example is the endonym for the German city of Cologne , where the Latin original of Colonia has evolved into Köln in German, while the Italian and Spanish exonym Colonia or

7396-517: Was Leghorn because it was an Italian port essential to English merchants and, by the 18th century, to the British Navy ; not far away, Rapallo , a minor port on the same sea, never received an exonym. In earlier times, the name of the first tribe or village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond. Thus, the Romans used the tribal names Graecus (Greek) and Germanus (Germanic),

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