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72-578: The Nazca lines ( / ˈ n ɑː z k ə / , /- k ɑː / ) are a group of over 700 geoglyphs made in the soil of the Nazca Desert in southern Peru . They were created between 500 BC and 500 AD by people making depressions or shallow incisions in the desert floor, removing pebbles and leaving different-colored dirt exposed. There are two major phases of the Nazca lines, Paracas phase , from 400 to 200 BC, and Nazca phase , from 200 BC to 500 AD. In

144-542: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . The high, arid plateau stretches more than 80 km (50 mi) between the towns of Nazca and Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana, approximately 400 km (250 mi) south of Lima . The main PE-1S Panamericana Sur runs parallel to it. The main concentration of designs is in a 10 by 4 km (6 by 2 mi) rectangle, south of the hamlet of San Miguel de la Pascana. In this area,

216-427: A supermassive black hole , which may result in an active galactic nucleus . Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters . The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from

288-455: A variable star . An example of this is the instability strip , a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti , RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables . The evolving star may eject some portion of its atmosphere to form a nebula, either steadily to form a planetary nebula or in a supernova explosion that leaves a remnant . Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of

360-608: A Swiss art historian specializing in Egypt and the Middle East, published a book in 1983 linking the Nazca Lines to the production of ancient textiles that archeologists have found wrapping mummies of the Paracas culture . He contended that the people may have used the lines and trapezes as giant, primitive looms to fabricate the extremely long strings and wide pieces of textiles typical of

432-406: A body and an object: It is a body when referring to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, and an object when describing the entire comet with its diffuse coma and tail . Astronomical objects such as stars , planets , nebulae , asteroids and comets have been observed for thousands of years, although early cultures thought of these bodies as gods or deities. These early cultures found

504-542: A companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object ; either a white dwarf , neutron star , or black hole . The IAU definitions of planet and dwarf planet require that a Sun-orbiting astronomical body has undergone the rounding process to reach a roughly spherical shape, an achievement known as hydrostatic equilibrium . The same spheroidal shape can be seen on smaller rocky planets like Mars to gas giants like Jupiter . Any natural Sun-orbiting body that has not reached hydrostatic equilibrium

576-584: A human head and is dated to the early period of Nazca culture or earlier. The other, undated, is an animal. The team has been conducting fieldwork there since 2006, and by 2012 has found approximately 100 new geoglyphs . In March 2012, the university announced that it would open a new research center at the site in September 2012, related to a longterm project to study the area for the next 15 years. A June 2019 article in Smithsonian magazine describes recent work by

648-429: A multi-disciplinary team of Japanese researchers who identified or re-identified some of the birds depicted. They note that birds are the animals most frequently depicted in the Nazca geoglyphs. The team believes that some of the bird images that previous researchers assumed to be indigenous species more closely resemble exotic birds found in non-desert habitats. They speculated that "The reason exotic birds were depicted in

720-425: A protective layer that shields the lines from winds, thereby preventing erosion . The Nazca used this technique to "draw" several hundred simple, but huge, curvilinear animal and human figures. In total, the earthwork project is huge and complex: the area encompassing the lines is nearly 450 km (170 sq mi), and the largest figures can span nearly 370 m (1,200 ft). Some figures have been measured:

792-538: A range of purposes including burial sites and funerary customs, aiding in the trapping of migratory animals, and as cleared areas for camps, houses and animal enclosures. Not all geoglyphs are ancient. The Land Art movement created many new geoglyphs as well as other structures; perhaps the most famous example is Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson . Many towns and cities in the Western United States use hillside letters (also known as "mountain monograms") on

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864-399: A reminder to just how fragile these figures are." In 2012, squatters occupied land in the area, damaging a Nazca-era cemetery and allowing their pigs to have access to some of the land. In 2013, machinery used in a limestone quarry was reported to have destroyed a small section of a line, and caused damage to another. In December 2014, a controversy arose involving Greenpeace activity on

936-436: A spatial, functional and religious relationship between these geoglyphs and the temples of Cahuachi . In particular, using remote sensing techniques (from satellite to drone based remote sensing), they investigated and found "five groups of geoglyphs, each of them characterized by a specific motif and shape, and associated with a distinct function." They identified a ceremonial one, characterized by meandering motifs. Another

1008-419: A steep slope prone to erosion, explaining why it had not previously been discovered until archaeologists carefully studied the image. Drones are revealing sites for further research. The number of known Nazca geoglyphs amounted to 358 in 2022. Drones now are being used to assist the anthropologists researching the area and are expected to enable them to discover many more. In 2024, a team of archaeologists from

1080-515: A story in which an aircraft landed on Earth, and the local people watched in amazement as "human-like beings with golden, shimmering skins" walked, mined for metals and then flew away in their ship. These ancient astronauts supposedly soon returned where they built landing tracks and then eventually left forever. The amazed Native Americans then considered Nazca a place of pilgrimage and generations of their people built more figures and runways as an invitation for gods to return, but they never did. At

1152-426: A web that spans the observable universe. Galaxies have a variety of morphologies , with irregular , elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger . Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and a distinct halo . At the core, most galaxies have

1224-545: Is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977 and Alceu Ranzi with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre . Other areas with geoglyphs include Megaliths in the Urals , South Australia ( Marree Man , which is not ancient, but rather a modern work of art, with mysterious origins), Western Australia and parts of the Great Basin Desert in the southwestern United States. Hill figures , turf mazes and

1296-584: Is classified by the IAU as a small Solar System body (SSSB). These come in many non-spherical shapes which are lumpy masses accreted haphazardly by in-falling dust and rock; not enough mass falls in to generate the heat needed to complete the rounding. Some SSSBs are just collections of relatively small rocks that are weakly held next to each other by gravity but are not actually fused into a single big bedrock . Some larger SSSBs are nearly round but have not reached hydrostatic equilibrium. The small Solar System body 4 Vesta

1368-566: Is created on a slope, so that it can be seen from a distance. Perhaps the most famous geoglyphs are the Nazca lines in Peru . The cultural significance of these geoglyphs for their creators remains unclear, despite many hypotheses. Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest , Brazil, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. Ondemar Dias

1440-436: Is related to calendrical purpose, as proved by the presence of radial centers aligned along the directions of winter solstice and equinox sunset. As have earlier scholars, the two Italians believe that the geoglyphs were the venues of events linked to the agriculture calendar. These also served to strengthen social cohesion among various groups of pilgrims, sharing common ancestors and religious beliefs. Other theories were that

1512-577: Is the same group that some believe created the well-known geoglyph known as the Paracas Candelabra . Farther north from the Nazca, Palpas region and along the Peruvian coast are other glyphs from the Chincha culture that have also been discovered. The following are images of some of the Nazca lines. Geoglyph Geoglyphs are generally a type of land art , and sometimes rock art . A hill figure

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1584-507: The Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, along with many others far from the Milky Way. The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy . Galaxies are organized into groups and clusters , often within larger superclusters , that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids , forming

1656-458: The Dakar Rally , which is visible from satellite imagery. In January 2018, an errant truck driver was arrested but later released for lack of evidence indicating any intent other than a simple error. He had damaged three of the geoglyphs by leaving substantial tire marks across an area of approximately 46 m by 107 m (150 by 350 feet). The Paracas culture is considered by some historians to be

1728-498: The Sun located in the center of the Solar System . Johannes Kepler discovered Kepler's laws of planetary motion , which are properties of the orbits that the astronomical bodies shared; this was used to improve the heliocentric model. In 1584, Giordano Bruno proposed that all distant stars are their own suns, being the first in centuries to suggest this idea. Galileo Galilei was one of

1800-594: The observable universe . In astronomy , the terms object and body are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial object is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures. Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems , star clusters , nebulae , and galaxies , while asteroids , moons , planets , and stars are astronomical bodies. A comet may be identified as both

1872-484: The photoelectric photometer allowed astronomers to accurately measure the color and luminosity of stars, which allowed them to predict their temperature and mass. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed by astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell independently of each other, which plotted stars based on their luminosity and color and allowed astronomers to easily examine stars. It

1944-491: The protoplanetary disks that surround newly formed stars. The various distinctive types of stars are shown by the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram)—a plot of absolute stellar luminosity versus surface temperature. Each star follows an evolutionary track across this diagram. If this track takes the star through a region containing an intrinsic variable type, then its physical properties can cause it to become

2016-421: The 1969 hypothesis of Erich von Däniken , who suggested that " ancient astronauts " had constructed these works. With careful planning and simple technologies, Nickell proved that a small team of people could recreate even the largest figures within days, without any aerial assistance. Scientific American characterized Nickell's work as "remarkable in its exactness" when compared to the existing lines. Most of

2088-496: The 21st century, several hundred new figures had been found with the use of drones, and archaeologists believe that there are more to be found. Most lines run straight across the landscape, but there are also figurative designs of animals and plants. The combined length of all the lines is more than 1,300 km (800 mi), and the group covers an area of about 50 km (19 sq mi). The lines are typically 10 to 15 cm (4–6 in) deep. They were made by removing

2160-600: The Americas and elsewhere constructed earthworks that combined such astronomical sighting with their religious cosmology, as did the late Mississippian culture at Cahokia and other sites in present-day United States. Another example is Stonehenge in England. Newgrange in Ireland has tombs that are oriented to admit light at the winter solstice. Gerald Hawkins and Anthony Aveni , experts in archaeoastronomy , concluded in 1990 that

2232-469: The Gods and Chariots of the Gods? were considered to not have any intellectual credibility or literary merit. Before Von Däniken's work, other authors had presented ideas of extraterrestrial contact with ancient humans, but he failed to credit these authors, even when making the same claims and also using identical or similar evidence. Nevertheless, Von Däniken's books drew in thousands of visitors and believers to

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2304-511: The Japanese University of Yamagata’s Nazca Institute , in collaboration with IBM Research , used artificial intelligence (AI) to discover 303 previously unknown geoglyphs depicting parrots, cats, monkeys, killer whales, and even decapitated heads near the Nazca Lines in Peru. The field survey took place between September 2022 and February 2023 and was conducted on foot for ground truthing under

2376-604: The Old Men " in Arabia , "stone-built structures that are far more numerous than (the) Nazca Lines, far more extensive in the area that they cover, and far older," have been described as geoglyphs by Amelia Sparavigna, a physics professor at Politecnico di Torino in Italy. The use of this term to describe these features is probably inaccurate, as recent research has shown that most were not constructed primarily as art, but were rather built to serve

2448-409: The area in mid-February 2007, Mario Olaechea Aquije, archaeological resident from Peru's National Institute of Culture , and a team of specialists surveyed the area. He said, "[T]he mudslides and heavy rains did not appear to have caused any significant damage to the Nazca Lines". He noted that the nearby Southern Pan-American Highway did suffer damage, and "the damage done to the roads should serve as

2520-515: The area. According to his theory, the figurative patterns (smaller and less common) were meant only for ritualistic purposes. This theory is not widely accepted, although scholars have noted similarities in patterns between the textiles and the Nazca Lines. They interpret these similarities as arising from the common culture. The first systematic field study of the geoglyphs was made by Markus Reindel and Johny Cuadrado Isla. Since 1996, they have documented and excavated more than 650 sites. They compared

2592-400: The availability of water, which directly related to the success and productivity of crops. He interpreted the lines as sacred paths leading to places where these deities could be worshiped. The figures were symbols representing animals and objects meant to invoke the aid of the deities in supplying water. The precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remain unknown. Henri Stierlin ,

2664-467: The criteria for selecting the lines she chose to measure, nor did she pay much attention to the archaeological data Clarkson and Silverman had unearthed. Her case did little justice to other information about the coastal cultures, save applying, with subtle contortions, Urton's representations of constellations from the highlands. As historian Jacquetta Hawkes might ask: was she getting the pampa she desired? Swiss pseudoscientific writer Erich von Däniken

2736-608: The evidence was insufficient to support such an astronomical explanation. Maria Reiche asserted that some or all of the figures represented constellations . By 1998, Phyllis B. Pitluga, a protégé of Reiche and senior astronomer at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, had concluded that the animal figures were "representations of heavenly shapes." According to The New York Times , Pitluga "contends they are not shapes of constellations, but of what might be called counter constellations ,

2808-567: The first astronomers to use telescopes to observe the sky, in 1610 he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter , now named the Galilean moons . Galileo also made observations of the phases of Venus , craters on the Moon , and sunspots on the Sun. Astronomer Edmond Halley was able to successfully predict the return of Halley's Comet , which now bears his name, in 1758. In 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered

2880-453: The geoglyphs instead of indigenous birds is closely related to the purpose of the etching process." The discovery of 143 new geoglyphs on the Nazca Pampa and in the surrounding area was announced in 2019 by Yamagata University and IBM Japan . One of these was found by using machine learning-based methods. Lines forming the shape of a cat were discovered on a hill in 2020. The figure is on

2952-406: The geometric lines could indicate water flow or irrigation schemes, or be a part of rituals to "summon" water. The spiders, birds, and plants may be fertility symbols. It also has been theorized that the lines could act as an astronomical calendar . Phyllis Pitluga, senior astronomer at the Adler Planetarium and a protégé of Reiche, performed computer-aided studies of star alignments. She asserted

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3024-510: The giant spider figure is an anamorphic diagram of the constellation Orion . She further suggested that three of the straight lines leading to the figure were used to track the changing declinations of the three stars of Orion's Belt . In a critique of her analysis, Dr. Anthony F. Aveni noted she did not account for the other 12 lines of the figure. He commented generally on her conclusions, saying: I really had trouble finding good evidence to back up what she contended. Pitluga never laid out

3096-438: The ground at the end of some lines, which supports this theory. One such stake was carbon-dated and was the basis for establishing the age of the design complex. Joe Nickell , an American investigator of the paranormal, religious artifacts, and folk mysteries, reproduced the figures in the early twenty-first century by using the same tools and technology that would have been available to the Nazca people. In so doing, he refuted

3168-599: The hills above their locations. Contemporary Australian sculptor Andrew Rogers has created geoglyphs around the world called "The Rhythms of Life". You Yangs Regional Park is the home of a geoglyph constructed by Rogers in recognition of the indigenous people of the area. It depicts Bunjil , a mythical creature in the culture of the local Wautharong Aboriginal people . Geoglyphic texts and images are common in Central and Inner Asia but there has been little systematic study of their origins and spread. More recent figures in

3240-564: The horizon at the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. Kosok began to study how the lines might have been created, as well as to try to determine their purpose. He was joined by archaeologist Richard P. Schaedel from the United States, and Maria Reiche , a German mathematician and archaeologist from Lima , to try to determine the purpose of the Nazca Lines. They proposed that the figures were designed as astronomical markers on

3312-450: The horizon to show where the sun and other celestial bodies rose on significant dates. Archaeologists, historians, and mathematicians have all tried to determine the purpose of the lines. Determining how they were made has been easier than determining why they were made. Scholars have theorized that the Nazca people could have used simple tools and surveying equipment to construct the lines. Archaeological surveys have found wooden stakes in

3384-521: The human eye were discovered, and new telescopes were made that made it possible to see astronomical objects in other wavelengths of light. Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi pioneered the field of spectroscopy , which allowed them to observe the composition of stars and nebulae, and many astronomers were able to determine the masses of binary stars based on their orbital elements . Computers began to be used to observe and study massive amounts of astronomical data on stars, and new technologies such as

3456-418: The hummingbird is 93 m (305 ft) long, the condor is 134 m (440 ft), the monkey is 93 by 58 m (305 by 190 ft), and the spider is 47 m (154 ft). The very dry, windless, and constant climate of the Nazca region has preserved the lines well. The discovery of two new small figures was announced in early 2011 by a Japanese team from Yamagata University . One of these resembles

3528-622: The iconography of the lines to ceramics of the cultures. As archeologists, they believe that the figurative motifs of geoglyphs can be dated to having been made between 600 and 200 BC. Based on the results of geophysical investigations and the observation of geological faults, David Johnson argued that some geoglyphs followed the paths of aquifers from which aqueducts (or puquios ) collected water. Nicola Masini and Giuseppe Orefici have conducted research in Pampa de Atarco, about 10 km (6 mi) south of Pampa de Nasca, which they believe reveals

3600-495: The irregularly-shaped dark patches within the twinkling expanse of the Milky Way ." Anthony Aveni criticized her work for failing to account for all the details. Alberto Rossel Castro (1977) proposed a multi-functional interpretation of the geoglyphs. He classified them into three groups: the first appeared to be tracks connected to irrigation and field division, the second are lines that are axes connected with mounds and cairns, and

3672-422: The lands. The figures vary in complexity. Hundreds are simple lines and geometric shapes ; more than 70 are zoomorphic designs, including a hummingbird, arachnid, fish, condor, heron, monkey, lizard, dog, cat, and a human. Other shapes include trees and flowers. Scholars differ in interpreting the purpose of the designs, but in general, they ascribe religious significance to them. They were designated in 1994 as

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3744-585: The lines are formed on the ground by a shallow trench, with a depth between 10 and 15 cm (4 and 6 in). Such trenches were made by removing the reddish-brown, iron oxide -coated pebbles that cover the surface of the Nazca Desert. When this gravel is removed, the light-colored clay earth exposed in the bottom of the trench contrasts sharply in color and tone with the surrounding land surface, producing visible lines. This sub-layer contains high amounts of lime . With moisture from morning mist, it hardens to form

3816-458: The main project website an image of a watch and chain inspired by John Harrison 's marine chronometer H5 was created. People have used the Strava mobile app to create Strava art , virtual geoglyphs. Astronomical object An astronomical object , celestial object , stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity , association, or structure that exists within

3888-515: The most notable geoglyphs are visible. The first published mention of the Nazca Lines was by Pedro Cieza de León in his book of 1553, and he described them as trail markers . In 1569, Luis Monzón reported having seen ancient ruins in Peru, including the remains of "roads". Although the lines were partially visible from nearby hills, the first to report them in the twentieth century were Peruvian military and civilian pilots. In 1927, Peruvian archaeologist Toribio Mejía Xesspe spotted them while he

3960-518: The movements of the bodies very important as they used these objects to help navigate over long distances, tell between the seasons, and to determine when to plant crops. During the Middle-Ages , cultures began to study the movements of these bodies more closely. Several astronomers of the Middle-East began to make detailed descriptions of stars and nebulae, and would make more accurate calendars based on

4032-546: The movements of these stars and planets. In Europe , astronomers focused more on devices to help study the celestial objects and creating textbooks, guides, and universities to teach people more about astronomy. During the Scientific Revolution , in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model was published. This model described the Earth , along with all of the other planets as being astronomical bodies which orbited

4104-499: The new planet Uranus , being the first discovered planet not visible by the naked eye. In the 19th and 20th century, new technologies and scientific innovations allowed scientists to greatly expand their understanding of astronomy and astronomical objects. Larger telescopes and observatories began to be built and scientists began to print images of the Moon and other celestial bodies on photographic plates. New wavelengths of light unseen by

4176-536: The permission of the Peruvian Ministry of Culture. It required 1,440 labor hours and resulted in 303 newly confirmed figurative geoglyphs. The 1,309 candidates with high potential were further sorted into three ranks. A total of 1,200 labor hours were spent screening the AI-model geoglyph candidate photos. Anthropologists , ethnologists , and archaeologists have studied the ancient Nazca culture to try to determine

4248-634: The possible precursor that influenced the development of the Nazca Lines. In 2018, drones used by archaeologists revealed 25 geoglyphs in the Palpa province that are being assigned to the Paracas culture. Many predate the associated Nazca lines by a thousand years. Some demonstrate a significant difference in the subjects and locations, such as some being on hillsides. Their co-discoverer, Peruvian archaeologist Luis Jaime Castillo Butters, indicates that many of these newly discovered geoglyphs represent warriors. The Paracas

4320-409: The purpose of the lines and figures. Paul Kosok and Maria Reiche advanced a purpose related to astronomy and cosmology , as has been common in monuments of other ancient cultures: the lines were intended to act as a kind of observatory , to point to the places on the distant horizon where the sun and other celestial bodies rose or set at the solstices . Many prehistoric indigenous cultures in

4392-468: The site, as Greenpeace activists set up a banner within the lines of one of the geoglyphs, damaging the site. Greenpeace issued an apology following the incident, though one of the activists was convicted and fined for their part in causing damage. The Greenpeace incident also directed attention to other damage to geoglyphs outside of the World Heritage area caused in 2012 and 2013 by off-road vehicles of

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4464-494: The site. Conservationists who seek to preserve the Nazca Lines are concerned about threats of pollution and erosion caused by deforestation in the region. The Lines themselves are superficial, they are only 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) deep and could be washed away... Nazca has only ever received a small amount of rain. But now there are great changes to the weather all over the world. The Lines cannot resist heavy rain without being damaged. After flooding and mudslides in

4536-723: The south of England created since the early 1800s have kept up the region's ancient tradition of chalk hillside figures. Examples of these are the Litlington White Horse , Devizes White Horse , Fovant Badges , Cherhill White Horse , and the Marlborough White Horse . In 2008–2009 Alfie Dennen created Britglyph , a locative art -focused geoglyph created by having participants across the United Kingdom leave rocks at highly specific locations and uploading media created at each location. When taken together and viewed on

4608-522: The stone-lined labyrinths of Scandinavia , Iceland , Lappland and the former Soviet Union are types of geoglyphs. The south of England has a number of equine and human figures cut into chalk hillsides. Examples include the Uffington White Horse , Cerne Abbas Giant , Westbury White Horse , and the Long Man of Wilmington . Some are ancient, others from the last few centuries. The " Works of

4680-472: The surrounding foothills and other high places. The shapes are usually made from one continuous line. The largest ones are about 370 m (400 yd) long. Because of its isolation and the dry, windless, stable climate of the plateau , the lines have mostly been preserved naturally. Extremely rare changes in weather may temporarily alter the general designs. As of 2012, the lines are said to have been deteriorating because of an influx of squatters inhabiting

4752-416: The third was linked to astronomical interpretations. In 1985, archaeologist Johan Reinhard published archaeological, ethnographic , and historical data demonstrating that worship of mountains and other water sources predominated in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He theorized that the lines and figures were part of religious practices involving the worship of deities associated with

4824-413: The time of Erich von Däniken's publishing of Chariots of the Gods? , scientists and archeologists such as Maria Reiche declared that his ideas were absurd and should be discarded. These scientists and archeologists also were able to prove that these lines could have been made using simple tools that would have been available to the people at the time they were created. Erich von Däniken's books Arrival of

4896-472: The top layer of reddish-brown ferric oxide –coated pebbles to reveal a yellow-grey subsoil. The width of the lines varies considerably, but more than half are slightly more than 33 cm (13 in) wide. In some places they may be only 30 cm (12 in) wide, and in others reach 1.8 m (6 ft) wide. Some of the Nazca lines form shapes that are best seen from the air (at around 500 m [1,600 ft]), although they are also visible from

4968-399: The various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of accretion from

5040-458: Was fascinated by Nazca and was also a strong believer in extraterrestrial visitations. Von Däniken published a best-selling book titled Chariots of the Gods? in 1968. In this book he describes his theory that the lines were used as landing sites for UFOs. Däniken claimed that the Nazca lines site reflected visits by astronauts from other worlds, who became the creators of ancient civilizations. According to Von Däniken, Sanskrit literature describes

5112-521: Was found that stars commonly fell on a band of stars called the main-sequence stars on the diagram. A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan based on the Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram. Astronomers also began debating whether other galaxies existed beyond the Milky Way , these debates ended when Edwin Hubble identified

5184-531: Was hiking through the foothills. He discussed them at a conference in Lima in 1939. Paul Kosok , an American historian from Long Island University in New York, is credited as the first scholar to study the Nazca Lines in depth. While in Peru in 1940–41 to study ancient irrigation systems, he flew over the lines and realized that one was in the shape of a bird. Another chance observation helped him see how lines converged on

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