147-645: The Strategic National Stockpile ( SNS ), originally called the National Pharmaceutical Stockpile ( NPS ), is the United States' national repository of antibiotics , vaccines , chemical antidotes , antitoxins , and other critical medical supplies . Its website states: "The Strategic National Stockpile's role is to supplement state and local supplies during public health emergencies. Many states have products stockpiled, as well. The supplies, medicines, and devices for life-saving care contained in
294-662: A diploma mill in a small town in Wyoming . The department was blamed for up to $ 2 billion of waste and fraud after audits by the Government Accountability Office revealed widespread misuse of government credit cards by DHS employees, with purchases including beer brewing kits, $ 70,000 of plastic dog booties that were later deemed unusable, boats purchased at double the retail price (many of which later could not be found), and iPods ostensibly for use in "data storage". A 2015 inspection of IT infrastructure found that
441-569: A disulfiram -like chemical reaction with alcohol by inhibiting its breakdown by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase , which may result in vomiting, nausea, and shortness of breath. In addition, the efficacy of doxycycline and erythromycin succinate may be reduced by alcohol consumption. Other effects of alcohol on antibiotic activity include altered activity of the liver enzymes that break down the antibiotic compound. The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms ,
588-501: A molecular weight of less than 1000 daltons . Since the first pioneering efforts of Howard Florey and Chain in 1939, the importance of antibiotics, including antibacterials, to medicine has led to intense research into producing antibacterials at large scales. Following screening of antibacterials against a wide range of bacteria , production of the active compounds is carried out using fermentation , usually in strongly aerobic conditions. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR)
735-509: A House subcommittee meeting, whistle-blower Dr. Rick Bright, previous director of Department of Health and Human Services’ Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, explained that the Trump administration had ignored his early warnings to stock up on masks and other supplies to combat the coronavirus. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR) of
882-492: A Japanese bacteriologist working with Ehrlich in the quest for a drug to treat syphilis , achieved success with the 606th compound in their series of experiments. In 1910, Ehrlich and Hata announced their discovery, which they called drug "606", at the Congress for Internal Medicine at Wiesbaden . The Hoechst company began to market the compound toward the end of 1910 under the name Salvarsan, now known as arsphenamine . The drug
1029-643: A biological cost, thereby reducing fitness of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria. Paleontological data show that both antibiotics and antibiotic resistance are ancient compounds and mechanisms. Useful antibiotic targets are those for which mutations negatively impact bacterial reproduction or viability. Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of
1176-481: A certified deaf interpreter and audio descriptions for viewers who are blind or have low vision. On March 1, 2004, the National Incident Management System (NIMS) was created. The stated purpose was to provide a consistent incident management approach for federal, state, local, and tribal governments. Under Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5, all federal departments were required to adopt
1323-520: A disease now treated by antibiotics. United States Department of Homeland Security The United States Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) is the U.S. federal executive department responsible for public security , roughly comparable to the interior or home ministries of other countries. Its stated missions involve anti-terrorism , border security , immigration and customs, cyber security , and disaster prevention and management. It began operations on March 1, 2003, after being formed as
1470-453: A dissertation, " Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes " (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes), the first known scholarly work to consider the therapeutic capabilities of moulds resulting from their anti-microbial activity. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and moulds engage in
1617-466: A million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." On 26 May 2016, an E. coli " superbug "
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#17328480247241764-490: A moment's notice." The SNS holds a variety of items that would be helpful to the general population in the event of a widespread disease outbreak. Each push pack weighs about 50 short tons (100,000 lb; 45 t; 45,000 kg). Its contents include broad-spectrum oral and intravenous antibiotics, emergency medicines, IV fluids and kits, airway equipment, bandages, vaccines, antitoxins, and ventilators. The material deploys by unmarked trucks and airplanes within 12 hours of
1911-701: A new budget of $ 51 million for pharmaceutical and vaccine stockpiling to be carried out by the CDC. The US Congress appropriated funds for the CDC to create a pharmaceutical and vaccine stockpile to handle biological and chemical threats from disease that could affect large numbers of the US civilian population, in Public Law 105–277 dated October 21, 1998. The original name was the National Pharmaceutical Stockpile (NPS) program, but additional materials have been added to
2058-406: A new personnel system named MaxHR. The Washington Post said that the rules would allow DHS "to override any provision in a union contract by issuing a department-wide directive" and would make it "difficult, if not impossible, for unions to negotiate over arrangements for staffing, deployments, technology and other workplace matters". In August 2005, U.S. District judge Rosemary M. Collyer blocked
2205-517: A patient is infected with a β-lactamase -producing strain of bacteria. Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action , chemical structure , or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall ( penicillins and cephalosporins ) or the cell membrane ( polymyxins ), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes ( rifamycins , lipiarmycins , quinolones , and sulfonamides ) have bactericidal activities, killing
2352-460: A perpetual battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by Penicillium glaucum when they were both grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated laboratory animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum , the animals did not contract typhoid. Duchesne's army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research. Duchesne died of tuberculosis ,
2499-523: A predictable pandemic influenza, the Bush administration called for the coordination of domestic production and stockpiling of protective personal equipment. In 2006, the US Congress funded the integration of protective equipment to a Strategic National Stockpile: 52 million surgical masks and 104 million N95 air-filtration masks were acquired and added. Public Health Emergency lists large-scale deployments from
2646-465: A resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were, for a while, well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half
2793-649: A result of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 , enacted in response to the September 11 attacks . With more than 240,000 employees, DHS is the third-largest Cabinet department, after the departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs . Homeland security policy is coordinated at the White House by the Homeland Security Council . Other agencies with significant homeland security responsibilities include
2940-470: A short-term stopgap buffer when the immediate supply of adequate amounts of these materials may not be immediately available." Washington State announced on April 5, 2020, that it would return more than 400 ventilators it had received from the Stockpile "... to help states facing higher numbers of COVID-19 cases." On April 8, 2020, HHS contracted with DuPont for 2.25 million Tyvek suits to be delivered to
3087-498: A single headquarters complex at the St. Elizabeths Hospital campus in Anacostia , Southeast Washington, D.C. The move was championed by District of Columbia officials because of the positive economic impact it would have on historically depressed Anacostia. The move was criticized by historic preservationists , who claimed the revitalization plans would destroy dozens of historic buildings on
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#17328480247243234-504: A single organization. The founding of the DHS marked a change in American thought towards threats. Introducing the term "homeland" centers attention on a population that needs to be protected not only against emergencies such as natural disasters but also against diffuse threats from individuals who are non-native to the United States. Prior to the signing of the bill, controversy about its adoption
3381-462: A specific threat against the United States, can reach homeland security partners or the public quickly, thereby allowing recipients to implement necessary protective measures. Alerts are issued when there is specific and credible information of a terrorist threat against the United States. Alerts have two levels: elevated and imminent. An elevated alert is issued when there is credible information about an attack but only general information about timing or
3528-506: A target. An Imminent Alert is issued when the threat is very specific and impending in the very near term. On March 12, 2002, the Homeland Security Advisory System , a color-coded terrorism risk advisory scale, was created as the result of a Presidential Directive to provide a "comprehensive and effective means to disseminate information regarding the risk of terrorist acts to Federal, State, and local authorities and to
3675-412: A variety of public health threats, this repository contains enough supplies to respond to multiple large-scale emergencies simultaneously." to: "The Strategic National Stockpile's role is to supplement state and local supplies during public health emergencies. Many states have products stockpiled, as well. The supplies, medicines, and devices for life-saving care contained in the stockpile can be used as
3822-731: A virus throughout New York City. As a result, Clinton held a meeting with scientists and cabinet officials to discuss the threat of bioterrorism. He was so impressed that he asked the experts to meet with senior-level aides at the Department of Defense and in the Department of Health and Human Services. At that time, the government had stockpiles of medications for military personnel, but did not have them for civilians. Shortly after, The Washington Post wrote that Clinton surprised many in Washington at how fast he and his National Security Council had moved to change that. By October, Clinton signed into law
3969-537: A wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year break in discovering classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibiotics were introduced to clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin ), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline ), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid ), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin ). With advances in medicinal chemistry , most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example,
4116-811: Is a naturally occurring process. AMR is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials. Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials. The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a common phenomenon mainly caused by the overuse/misuse. It represents a threat to health globally. Each year, nearly 5 million deaths are associated with AMR globally. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria
4263-477: Is almost always used as a partner drug. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections may be treated with a combination therapy of fusidic acid and rifampicin. Antibiotics used in combination may also be antagonistic and the combined effects of the two antibiotics may be less than if one of the antibiotics was given as a monotherapy . For example, chloramphenicol and tetracyclines are antagonists to penicillins . However, this can vary depending on
4410-486: Is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including acne and cellulitis . Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse. Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce
4557-399: Is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since
Strategic National Stockpile - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-468: Is considered one of the drivers of antibiotic misuse. Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and
4851-684: Is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health , as well as other US agencies. A non-governmental organization campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working . In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in
4998-623: Is critically important as it can reduce the cost and toxicity of the antibiotic therapy and also reduce the possibility of the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. To avoid surgery, antibiotics may be given for non-complicated acute appendicitis . Antibiotics may be given as a preventive measure and this is usually limited to at-risk populations such as those with a weakened immune system (particularly in HIV cases to prevent pneumonia ), those taking immunosuppressive drugs , cancer patients, and those having surgery . Their use in surgical procedures
5145-607: Is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials. Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials. The World Health Organization has classified AMR as a widespread "serious threat [that] is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country". Each year, nearly 5 million deaths are associated with AMR globally. Global deaths attributable to AMR numbered 1.27 million in 2019. The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life",
5292-489: Is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment . Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. Resistance may take
5439-405: Is necessary. The secretary will then authorize FEMA to task and deploy designated personnel from DHS components and other Federal Executive Agencies to respond to extraordinary disasters. The DHS National Cyber Security Division (NCSD) is responsible for the response system, risk management program, and requirements for cyber-security in the U.S. The division is home to US-CERT operations and
5586-434: Is the nation’s largest supply of life-saving pharmaceuticals and medical supplies for use in a public health emergency severe enough to cause local supplies to run out. When state, local, tribal, and territorial responders request federal assistance to support their response efforts, the stockpile ensures that the right medicines and supplies get to those who need them most during an emergency. Organized for scalable response to
5733-494: Is to help prevent infection of incisions . They have an important role in dental antibiotic prophylaxis where their use may prevent bacteremia and consequent infective endocarditis . Antibiotics are also used to prevent infection in cases of neutropenia particularly cancer-related. The use of antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease is not supported by current scientific evidence, and may actually increase cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality and
5880-546: Is to try not to use them, and the second rule is try not to use too many of them." Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, potential harm from antibiotics extends beyond selection of antimicrobial resistance and their overuse is associated with adverse effects for patients themselves, seen most clearly in critically ill patients in Intensive care units . Self-prescribing of antibiotics
6027-406: Is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side effects. Therefore, potential risks of side effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Antibiotics such as metronidazole , tinidazole , cephamandole , latamoxef , cefoperazone , cefmenoxime , and furazolidone , cause
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6174-536: The New York Times alleged mismanagement involving the Strategic National Stockpile, stating, "In one telling example, The Times found, the government approved a plan in 2015 to buy tens of millions of N95 respirators — lifesaving equipment for medical workers that has been in short supply because of Covid-19 — but the masks repeatedly lost out in the competition for funding over the years leading up to
6321-509: The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States . This was later confirmed by President Donald Trump . PPE from the SNS was sent directly to health facilities across the country. During the COVID-19 pandemic , states criticized the lack of availability of medical supplies from the federal stockpile. At a White House press conference on April 2, 2020, senior advisor Jared Kushner commented "The notion of
6468-492: The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Act of 2018 into law, which elevated the mission of the former DHS National Protection and Programs Directorate and established the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency . In fiscal year 2018, DHS was allocated a net discretionary budget of $ 47.716 billion. In 2021, the Department of Justice began carrying out an investigation into white supremacy and extremism in
6615-528: The Department of Health and Human Services has managed the Strategic National Stockpile since October 1, 2018. Prior to that, the stockpile was managed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic , SNS was involved in providing supplies to the repatriation efforts of State Department employees from China and Japan . It also shipped thousands of N95 masks to
6762-591: The Federal Emergency Management Agency was absorbed into the DHS and in the fall of 2008 took over coordination of the campaign. The Ready Campaign and its Spanish-language version Listo.gov asks individuals to build an emergency supply kit, make a family emergency plan and be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and how to respond. The campaign messages have been promoted through television, radio, print, outdoor and web PSAs, as well as brochures, toll-free phone lines and
6909-414: The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to deliver the doses to states. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration later withdrew Emergency Use Authorization for these drugs after studies found they had no benefit for treating COVID-19. On April 1, 2020, Department of Homeland Security officials told reporters that the cache of personal protective equipment stored by the SNS was almost depleted due to
7056-425: The Homeland Security Act established the Department of Homeland Security to consolidate U.S. executive branch organizations related to "homeland security" into a single Cabinet agency. The Gilmore Commission , supported by much of Congress and John Bolton , helped to solidify further the need for the department. The DHS incorporated the following 22 agencies. According to political scientist Peter Andreas ,
7203-485: The Iraq War . One of the first announcements that garnered widespread public attention to this campaign was one by Tom Ridge in which he stated that in the case of a chemical attack, citizens should use duct tape and plastic sheeting to build a homemade bunker, or "sheltering in place" to protect themselves. As a result, the sales of duct tape skyrocketed, and DHS was criticized for being too alarmist . On March 1, 2003,
7350-832: The National Cyber Alert System . The DHS Science and Technology Directorate helps government and private end-users transition to new cyber-security capabilities. This directorate also funds the Cyber Security Research and Development Center, which identifies and prioritizes research and development for NCSD. The center works on the Internet's routing infrastructure (the SPRI program) and Domain Name System ( DNSSEC ), identity theft and other online criminal activity (ITTC), Internet traffic and networks research (PREDICT datasets and
7497-556: The U.S. Border Patrol , the U.S. Customs Service , and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service were consolidated into a new agency under DHS: U.S. Customs and Border Protection . The Federal Protective Service falls under the National Protection and Programs Directorate. The Department of Homeland Security is headed by the secretary of homeland security with the assistance of the deputy secretary . The department contains
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#17328480247247644-458: The beta-lactam antibiotics , which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium ), the cephalosporins , and the carbapenems . Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides , whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides , the quinolones , and the oxazolidinones —are produced solely by chemical synthesis . Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with
7791-441: The bioenergetic failure of immune cells seen in sepsis . They also alter the microbiome of the gut, lungs, and skin, which may be associated with adverse effects such as Clostridioides difficile associated diarrhoea . Whilst antibiotics can clearly be lifesaving in patients with bacterial infections, their overuse, especially in patients where infections are hard to diagnose, can lead to harm via multiple mechanisms. Before
7938-558: The sulfonamides . In current usage, the term "antibiotic" is applied to any medication that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth, regardless of whether that medication is produced by a microorganism or not. The term "antibiotic" derives from anti + βιωτικός ( biōtikos ), "fit for life, lively", which comes from βίωσις ( biōsis ), "way of life", and that from βίος ( bios ), "life". The term "antibacterial" derives from Greek ἀντί ( anti ), "against" + βακτήριον ( baktērion ), diminutive of βακτηρία ( baktēria ), "staff, cane", because
8085-402: The 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of
8232-624: The American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association , and the American Public Health Association . Despite pledges by food companies and restaurants to reduce or eliminate meat that comes from animals treated with antibiotics, the purchase of antibiotics for use on farm animals has been increasing every year. There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In
8379-457: The American homeland – air, land, and sea. The top element, a dark blue sky, contains 22 stars representing the original 22 entities that have come together to form the department. The left shield element contains white mountains behind a green plain underneath a light blue sky. The right shield element contains four wave shapes representing the oceans alternating light and dark blue separated by white lines. - DHS June 6, 2003 Since its inception,
8526-455: The American people". Many procedures at government facilities are tied into the alert level; for example a facility may search all entering vehicles when the alert is above a certain level. Since January 2003, it has been administered in coordination with DHS; it has also been the target of frequent jokes and ridicule on the part of the administration's detractors about its ineffectiveness. After resigning, Tom Ridge said he did not always agree with
8673-588: The CDC deployed SNS assets, technical assistance and response units, plus the newly developed and rapidly deployable "federal medical contingency stations" to state-approved locations near or in the disaster areas. The contingency stations, later renamed Federal Medical Stations (FMS), are caches of equipment and supplies provided by the SNS, set up in local "buildings of opportunity" and staffed by local or federal medical personnel to provide triage , low acuity care, and temporary holding of displaced patients for whom local acute care systems are damaged or destroyed. Since
8820-693: The DETER testbed), Department of Defense and HSARPA exercises (Livewire and Determined Promise), and wireless security in cooperation with Canada. On October 30, 2009, DHS opened the National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center . The center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure. In January 2017, DHS officially designated state-run election systems as critical infrastructure. The designation made it easier for state and local election officials to get cybersecurity help from
8967-469: The DHS ranks. DHS also halted large-scale immigration raids at job sites, saying in October 2021 that the administration was planning "a new enforcement strategy to more effectively target employers who pay substandard wages and engage in exploitative labor practices." In 2023, the U.S. Customs and Border Patrol began using an app which requires asylum seekers to submit biometric information before they enter
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#17328480247249114-542: The English and Spanish language websites Ready.gov and Listo.gov. The general campaign aims to reach all Americans, but targeted resources are also available via "Ready Business" for small- to medium-sized business and "Ready Kids" for parents and teachers of children ages 8–12. In 2015, the campaign also launched a series of PSAs to help the whole community, people with disabilities and others with access and functional needs prepare for emergencies, which included open captioning,
9261-531: The NIMS and to use it in their individual domestic incident management and emergency prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation program and activities. In December 2005, the National Response Plan (NRP) was created, in an attempt to align federal coordination structures, capabilities, and resources into a unified, all-discipline, and all-hazards approach to domestic incident management. The NRP
9408-479: The Office will be to develop and coordinate the implementation of a comprehensive national strategy to secure the United States from terrorist threats or attacks. The Office will coordinate the executive branch's efforts to detect, prepare for, prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from terrorist attacks within the United States. Ridge began his duties as OHS director on October 8, 2001. On November 25, 2002,
9555-617: The Ready Campaign, a national public service advertising (PSA) campaign to educate and empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies including natural and man-made disasters. With pro bono creative support from the Martin Agency of Richmond, Virginia , the campaign website "Ready.gov" and materials were conceived in March 2002 and launched in February 2003, just before the launch of
9702-478: The SNS are located in 12 secret locations strategically placed throughout the US. The locations appear to look like ordinary commercial warehouses. Inside the warehouses, supplies are stacked on shelves that can measure five stories high. Armed personnel guard the warehouse contents and, according to NPR in 2020, during the COVID-19 global pandemic, "rows of ventilators, which can support people who are having trouble breathing, are kept charged up and ready to roll at
9849-511: The SNS in response to emergencies. The SNS successfully deployed 12-hour "push packages" to New York City and Washington, D.C. , in response to the September 11 attacks , and managed inventory (MI) to numerous locations in response to the anthrax terrorist attacks of 2001 . Following the landfall of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on the Gulf coast of Mississippi and Louisiana in September 2005,
9996-513: The SNS to be used as PPE for frontline healthcare workers. By April 13, 2020, HHS used the Defense Production Act (DPA) to contract for ventilator production with General Electric , Hill-Rom , Medtronic , ResMed , and Vyaire. Additionally, they contracted with Hamilton and Zoll for ventilator production without using the DPA. The seven contracts were expected to produce 137,431 ventilators by
10143-586: The Secretary of Health and Human Services to: Antibiotic An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria . It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections , and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as
10290-634: The September 11 attacks made the proposed elimination of employee protections imperative. Congress ultimately passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002, and President Bush signed the bill into law on November 25, 2002. It was the largest U.S. government reorganization in the 50 years since the United States Department of Defense was created. Tom Ridge was named secretary on January 24, 2003, and began naming his chief deputies. DHS officially began operations on January 24, 2003, but most of
10437-684: The UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the European Union has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (including the World Health Organization, the National Academy of Sciences , and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ) have advocated restricting the amount of antibiotic use in food animal production. However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit
10584-706: The United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for
10731-510: The United States. During the first decade of the Cold War , the United States accumulated a civil defense medical stockpile at 32 storage facilities. The supplies began to degrade in the 1960s, and were disposed of and the stockpile program closed in 1974. In April 1998, President Bill Clinton read the Richard Preston novel The Cobra Event , a fiction book about a mad scientist spreading
10878-565: The activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. In important infectious diseases, including tuberculosis, combination therapy (i.e.,
11025-438: The administration of a broad-spectrum antibiotic based on the signs and symptoms presented and is initiated pending laboratory results that can take several days. When the responsible pathogenic microorganism is already known or has been identified, definitive therapy can be started. This will usually involve the use of a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. The choice of antibiotic given will also be based on its cost. Identification
11172-490: The agency's $ 600 million annual budget led officials to decide that replenishing a large inventory of N95 face masks was of less priority than stockpiling other equipment and drugs for diseases and disasters. During the first Trump administration , Trump falsely claimed his administration inherited an ‘empty’ stockpile from the previous administration. From 2017 to 2019, the Trump administration failed to replace masks and other supplies used in earlier disasters. In May 2020, in
11319-753: The agency's internal inspector general found that pilot testing of the system had been performed using data on real people without required privacy safeguards in place. The system, in development at Lawrence Livermore and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory since 2003, has cost the agency $ 42 million to date. Controversy over the program is not new; in March 2007, the Government Accountability Office stated that "the ADVISE tool could misidentify or erroneously associate an individual with undesirable activity such as fraud , crime or terrorism." Homeland Security's Inspector General later said that ADVISE
11466-485: The antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mould Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of some types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1895 Vincenzo Tiberio , Italian physician, published a paper on the antibacterial power of some extracts of mold. In 1897, doctoral student Ernest Duchesne submitted
11613-454: The assistant to the president for homeland security. The seal was developed with input from senior DHS leadership, employees, and the U.S. Commission on Fine Arts. The Ad Council – which partners with DHS on its Ready.gov campaign – and the consulting company Landor Associates were responsible for graphic design and maintaining heraldic integrity. The seal is symbolic of the Department's mission – to prevent attacks and protect Americans – on
11760-423: The bacteria. Protein synthesis inhibitors ( macrolides , lincosamides , and tetracyclines ) are usually bacteriostatic , inhibiting further growth (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides ). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as gram-negative or gram-positive , whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect
11907-447: The best interests" of the country for him to pursue the post. On January 11, 2005, President Bush nominated federal judge Michael Chertoff to succeed Ridge. Chertoff was confirmed on February 15, 2005, by a vote of 98–0 in the U.S. Senate and was sworn in the same day. In February 2005, DHS and the Office of Personnel Management issued rules relating to employee pay and discipline for
12054-510: The biometric data of children under 14. Whereas the Department of Defense is charged with military actions abroad, the Department of Homeland Security works in the civilian sphere to protect the United States within, at, and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism. On March 1, 2003, DHS absorbed the U.S. Customs Service and Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and assumed its duties. In doing so, it divided
12201-437: The blood. Women with menstrual irregularities may be at higher risk of failure and should be advised to use backup contraception during antibiotic treatment and for one week after its completion. If patient-specific risk factors for reduced oral contraceptive efficacy are suspected, backup contraception is recommended. In cases where antibiotics have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for
12348-568: The broad-spectrum antibiotic rifampicin , these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora , which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibiotics that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives . More studies on
12495-640: The campus. Community activists criticized the plans because the facility would remain walled off and have little interaction with the surrounding area. In February 2015 the General Services Administration said that the site would open in 2021. DHS headquarters staff began moving to St. Elizabeths in April 2019 after the completion of the Center Building renovation. During a Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee hearing on
12642-469: The components listed below. Passports for U.S. citizens are issued by the U.S. Department of State , not the Department of Homeland Security. Advisory groups: Other components: In an August 5, 2002, speech, President Bush said: "We are fighting ... to secure freedom in the homeland." Prior to the creation of DHS, U.S. Presidents had referred to the U.S. as "the nation" or "the republic" and to its internal policies as "domestic". Also unprecedented
12789-438: The concurrent application of two or more antibiotics) has been used to delay or prevent the emergence of resistance. In acute bacterial infections, antibiotics as part of combination therapy are prescribed for their synergistic effects to improve treatment outcome as the combined effect of both antibiotics is better than their individual effect. Fosfomycin has the highest number of synergistic combinations among antibiotics and
12936-611: The country. In June 2024 John Boyd, the head of the DHS Office of Biometric Identity Management, announced at a conference that the agency "is looking into ways it might use facial recognition technology to track the identities of migrant children." According to Boyd, the initiative is intended to advance the development of facial recognition algorithms. A former DHS official said that every migrant processing center he visited engaged in biometric identity collection, and that children were not separated out during processing. DHS denied collecting
13083-640: The creation of DHS constituted the most significant government reorganization since the Cold War and the most substantial reorganization of federal agencies since the National Security Act of 1947 (which had placed the different military departments under a secretary of defense and created the National Security Council and Central Intelligence Agency ). Creation of DHS constitutes the most diverse merger ever of federal functions and responsibilities, incorporating 22 government agencies into
13230-399: The department has wasted roughly $ 15 billion in failed contracts (as of September 2008 ). In 2003, the department came under fire after the media revealed that Laura Callahan , Deputy Chief Information Officer at DHS with responsibilities for sensitive national security databases, had obtained her bachelor, masters, and doctorate computer science degrees through Hamilton University ,
13377-601: The department was running over a hundred computer systems whose owners were unknown, including Secret and Top Secret databases, many with out of date security or weak passwords. Basic security reviews were absent, and the department had apparently made deliberate attempts to delay publication of information about the flaws. On September 5, 2007, the Associated Press reported that the DHS had scrapped an anti-terrorism data mining tool called ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight and Semantic Enhancement) after
13524-501: The department's 240,000 employees in the weeks leading up to the CRs." The uncertainty about funding hampers DHS's ability to pursue major projects and takes away attention and manpower from important priorities. Seventy percent of DHS employees are considered essential and are not furloughed during government shutdowns. Soon after formation, the department worked with the Ad Council to launch
13671-503: The department's component agencies were not transferred into the new department until March 1. After establishing the basic structure of DHS and working to integrate its components, Ridge announced his resignation on November 30, 2004, following the re-election of President Bush. Bush initially nominated former New York City Police Department commissioner Bernard Kerik as his successor, but on December 10, Kerik withdrew his nomination, citing personal reasons and saying it "would not be in
13818-407: The department's temporary headquarters had been in Washington, D.C.'s Nebraska Avenue Complex , a former naval facility. The 38-acre (15 ha) site, across from American University , has 32 buildings comprising 566,000 square feet (52,600 m ) of administrative space. In early 2007, the department submitted a $ 4.1 billion plan to Congress to consolidate its 60-plus Washington-area offices into
13965-505: The departments of Health and Human Services , Justice , and Energy . In response to the September 11 attacks , President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) to coordinate " homeland security " efforts. The office was headed by former Pennsylvania governor Tom Ridge , who assumed the title of Assistant to the President for Homeland Security. The official announcement states: The mission of
14112-497: The early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore . Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2,000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks , used specially selected mold and plant materials to treat infections . Nubian mummies studied in the 1990s were found to contain significant levels of tetracycline . The beer brewed at that time
14259-422: The end of 2020 at a total cost of $ 1.435 billion. In January 2022, amidst a surge in cases caused by the more contagious Omicron variant , the CDC updated its guidance to emphasize the greater protection from wearing N95 masks in indoor public spaces. The Biden administration announced it would distribute 400 million N95 masks from the SNS which started arriving in late January and early February. The stockpile
14406-457: The enforcement and services functions into two separate and new agencies: Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Citizenship and Immigration Services . The investigative divisions and intelligence gathering units of the INS and Customs Service were merged forming Homeland Security Investigations , the primary investigative arm of DHS. Additionally, the border enforcement functions of the INS, including
14553-699: The federal government. In October 2017, DHS convened a Government Coordinating Council (GCC) for the Election Infrastructure Subsection with representatives from various state and federal agencies such as the Election Assistance Commission and National Association of Secretaries of State . To date there have been seven confirmed secretaries of the Department of Homeland Security: The department has been dogged by persistent criticism over excessive bureaucracy , waste, ineffectiveness and lack of transparency. Congress estimates that
14700-440: The federal stockpile was it's supposed to be our stockpile. It's not supposed to be states' stockpiles that they then use." The idea that the stockpile was not a backup for states that run out of supplies was disputed by Governor Laura Kelly of Kansas, among others. The description of the stockpile, as listed on its website, was changed the day after Kushner's remarks to better align with them, from: "Strategic National Stockpile
14847-587: The first systemically active antibacterial drug, Prontosil , was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 or 1933 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. However, the effectiveness and easy access to antibiotics have also led to their overuse and some bacteria have evolved resistance to them. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a naturally occurring process,
14994-399: The first bacteria to be discovered were rod-shaped. Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent bacterial infections, and sometimes protozoan infections . ( Metronidazole is effective against a number of parasitic diseases ). When an infection is suspected of being responsible for an illness but the responsible pathogen has not been identified, an empiric therapy is adopted. This involves
15141-514: The first synthetic antibacterial organoarsenic compound salvarsan , now called arsphenamine. This heralded the era of antibacterial treatment that was begun with the discovery of a series of arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics by both Alfred Bertheim and Ehrlich in 1907. Ehrlich and Bertheim had experimented with various chemicals derived from dyes to treat trypanosomiasis in mice and spirochaeta infection in rabbits. While their early compounds were too toxic, Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata ,
15288-444: The form of biodegradation of pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethazine-degrading soil bacteria introduced to sulfamethazine through medicated pig feces. The survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance, but the growth of resistance to antibacterials also occurs through horizontal gene transfer . Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use. Antibacterial resistance may impose
15435-923: The genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome . Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange . For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when
15582-441: The highest consumption with a rate of 64.4. Burundi had the lowest at 4.4. Amoxicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid were the most frequently consumed. Antibiotics are screened for any negative effects before their approval for clinical use, and are usually considered safe and well tolerated. However, some antibiotics have been associated with a wide extent of adverse side effects ranging from mild to very severe depending on
15729-410: The land, in the sea and in the air. In the center of the seal, a graphically styled white American eagle appears in a circular blue field. The eagle's outstretched wings break through an inner red ring into an outer white ring that contains the words "U.S. DEPARTMENT OF" in the top half and "HOMELAND SECURITY" in the bottom half in a circular placement. The eagle's wings break through the inner circle into
15876-401: The late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would colour human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug,
16023-409: The location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. The bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since
16170-448: The name "MaxHR". In a February 2008 court filing, DHS said that it would no longer pursue the new rules, and that it would abide by the existing civil service labor-management procedures. A federal court issued an order closing the case. A 2017 memo by Secretary of Homeland Security John F. Kelly directed DHS to disregard "age as a basis for determining when to collect biometrics." On November 16, 2018, President Donald Trump signed
16317-516: The occurrence of stroke. There are many different routes of administration for antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics are usually taken by mouth . In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated systemic infections , antibiotics can be given intravenously or by injection. Where the site of infection is easily accessed, antibiotics may be given topically in the form of eye drops onto the conjunctiva for conjunctivitis or ear drops for ear infections and acute cases of swimmer's ear . Topical use
16464-509: The ones which cause the common cold or influenza . Drugs which inhibit growth of viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals. Antibiotics are also not effective against fungi . Drugs which inhibit growth of fungi are called antifungal drugs . Sometimes, the term antibiotic —literally "opposing life", from the Greek roots ἀντι anti , "against" and βίος bios , "life"—is broadly used to refer to any substance used against microbes , but in
16611-470: The original 250-bed FMS. The SNS released one-quarter of its antiviral drug inventory ( Tamiflu and Relenza ), personal protective equipment ( PPE ), and respiratory protection devices, to help every US state respond to the H1N1 Influenza 2009 swine influenza outbreak in the United States. After the 2009 flu pandemic in which tens of millions of masks were distributed, fiscal constraints imposed by
16758-481: The original deployment following Hurricane Katrina , FMSs have been deployed to support other major disaster responses including Superstorm Sandy . The FMS program is a collaboration between CDC and the Office of Emergency Management under the HHS Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response. In 2014, responding to stakeholder feedback, a 50-bed FMS cache was developed and made available in addition to
16905-506: The outer ring to suggest that the Department of Homeland Security will break through traditional bureaucracy and perform government functions differently. In the tradition of the Great Seal of the United States, the eagle's talon on the left holds an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 seeds while the eagle's talon on the right grasps 13 arrows. Centered on the eagle's breast is a shield divided into three sections containing elements that represent
17052-451: The pandemic, according to five former federal health officials involved in the effort. During the same period, Emergent sold the government nearly $ 1 billion in anthrax vaccines, financial disclosures show." Section 403 of the Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 (H.R. 307; 113th Congress) reauthorized the Strategic National Stockpile for FY2014-FY2018. It required
17199-707: The patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold . One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. The lack of rapid point of care diagnostic tests, particularly in resource-limited settings
17346-402: The plan on the grounds that it did not ensure collective-bargaining rights for DHS employees. A federal appeals court ruled against DHS in 2006; pending a final resolution to the litigation, Congress's fiscal year 2008 appropriations bill for DHS provided no funding for the proposed new personnel system. DHS announced in early 2007 that it was retooling its pay and performance system and retiring
17493-511: The possibility of tendon damage from the administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid . Some antibiotics may also damage the mitochondrion , a bacteria-derived organelle found in eukaryotic, including human, cells. Mitochondrial damage cause oxidative stress in cells and has been suggested as a mechanism for side effects from fluoroquinolones . They are also known to affect chloroplasts . There are few well-controlled studies on whether antibiotic use increases
17640-447: The possible interactions between antibiotics and birth control pills (oral contraceptives) are required as well as careful assessment of patient-specific risk factors for potential oral contractive pill failure prior to dismissing the need for backup contraception. Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption
17787-438: The reauthorization of DHS, Deputy Secretary Elaine Duke said there is a weariness and anxiety within DHS about the repeated congressional efforts to agree to a long-term spending plan, which had resulted in several threats to shut down the federal government. "Shutdowns are disruptive", Duke said. She said the "repeated failure on a longtime spending plan resulting in short-term continuing resolutions (CRs) has caused "angst" among
17934-543: The receipt of a request by the CDC. The U.S. Marshals Service provides armed security from these federal sites to local destinations. The SNS has adequate vaccines and countermeasures in its stockpile, including 300 million smallpox treatment courses and enough anthrax vaccines to handle a three-city incident. CHEMPACKs contain nerve agent antidotes to help in the event of a nerve agent attack or industrial accident. As of 2015, 1,960 CHEMPACKs were forward-deployed in more than 1,340 locations across each state and territory of
18081-536: The risk of oral contraceptive failure. The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do not interfere with birth control pills , such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). Situations that may increase the risk of oral contraceptive failure include non-compliance (missing taking the pill), vomiting, or diarrhea. Gastrointestinal disorders or interpatient variability in oral contraceptive absorption affecting ethinylestradiol serum levels in
18228-790: The risk of surgical site infections. However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local hypersensitivity reactions or contact dermatitis occurring. It is recommended to administer antibiotics as soon as possible, especially in life-threatening infections. Many emergency departments stock antibiotics for this purpose. Antibiotic consumption varies widely between countries. The WHO report on surveillance of antibiotic consumption published in 2018 analysed 2015 data from 65 countries. As measured in defined daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day. Mongolia had
18375-494: The species composition in the intestinal flora , resulting, for example, in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridioides difficile . Taking probiotics during the course of antibiotic treatment can help prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Antibacterials can also affect the vaginal flora , and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area. Additional side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as
18522-402: The species of bacteria. In general, combinations of a bacteriostatic antibiotic and bactericidal antibiotic are antagonistic. In addition to combining one antibiotic with another, antibiotics are sometimes co-administered with resistance-modifying agents. For example, β-lactam antibiotics may be used in combination with β-lactamase inhibitors , such as clavulanic acid or sulbactam , when
18669-614: The states of Washington , Massachusetts , and New York to respond to their surging infection rates. In March 2020, SNS director Steven Adams said it had stockpiled 13 million masks and had placed an order for 500 million more by September 2021. The SNS was criticized for containing over 5 million expired masks. On March 29, 2020, HHS accepted a donation of 30 million doses of hydroxychloroquine sulfate from Sandoz and one million doses of Resochin ( chloroquine phosphate ) from Bayer Pharmaceuticals for use in treating hospitalized COVID-19 patients or in clinical trials. The SNS will work with
18816-449: The stockpile can be used as a short-term stopgap buffer when the immediate supply of adequate amounts of these materials may not be immediately available." In at least 10 government reports published from 2003 to 2015, federal officials predicted that the U.S. would experience a shortage of ventilators and other medical supplies if a large-scale infectious disease outbreak were to occur. The actual supply of drugs and supplies that make up
18963-526: The stockpile since the original authorization . The federal government implemented a pandemic blueprint for distribution of Personal Protective Equipment (P.P.E.) from the Strategic National Stockpile, in coordination with public and private efforts. On March 1, 2003, the NPS was renamed the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) program with joint management by Department of Homeland Security and Department of Health and Human Services . In 2005 and in preparation for
19110-554: The threat level adjustments pushed by other government agencies. In January 2003, the office was merged into the Department of Homeland Security and the White House Homeland Security Council, both of which were created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Council, similar in nature to the National Security Council, retains a policy coordination and advisory role and is led by
19257-442: The type of antibiotic used, the microbes targeted, and the individual patient. Side effects may reflect the pharmacological or toxicological properties of the antibiotic or may involve hypersensitivity or allergic reactions. Adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis . Common side effects of oral antibiotics include diarrhea , resulting from disruption of
19404-493: The use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. Studies have shown that common misconceptions about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse. Other forms of antibiotic-associated harm include anaphylaxis , drug toxicity most notably kidney and liver damage, and super-infections with resistant organisms. Antibiotics are also known to affect mitochondrial function, and this may contribute to
19551-460: The use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562 ) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including
19698-445: The use of molds to treat infections was John Parkinson (1567–1650). Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) discovered modern day penicillin in 1928, the widespread use of which proved significantly beneficial during wartime. The first sulfonamide and
19845-903: The usual medical usage, antibiotics (such as penicillin ) are those produced naturally (by one microorganism fighting another), whereas non-antibiotic antibacterials (such as sulfonamides and antiseptics ) are fully synthetic . However, both classes have the same effect of killing or preventing the growth of microorganisms, and both are included in antimicrobial chemotherapy . "Antibacterials" include bactericides , bacteriostatics , antibacterial soaps , and chemical disinfectants , whereas antibiotics are an important class of antibacterials used more specifically in medicine and sometimes in livestock feed . Antibiotics have been used since ancient times. Many civilizations used topical application of moldy bread, with many references to its beneficial effects arising from ancient Egypt, Nubia , China , Serbia , Greece, and Rome. The first person to directly document
19992-670: Was again used during the 2022 monkeypox outbreak . In May 2022, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) confirmed the United States released some of their Jynneos monkeypox vaccine supply from their Strategic National Stockpile for people who are "high-risk". On May 27, 2022, the CDC specified the indications for the Jynneos vaccine: research laboratory personnel, clinical laboratory personnel performing diagnostic testing for orthopoxviruses, designated response team members, and health care personnel who administer live smallpox Vaccine or care for patients infected with orthopoxviruses. In March of 2021,
20139-674: Was built on the template of the NIMS. On January 22, 2008, the National Response Framework was published in the Federal Register as an updated replacement of the NRP, effective March 22, 2008. The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act directs the DHS Secretary to designate employees from throughout the department to staff a Surge Capacity Force (SCF). During a declared disaster, the DHS Secretary will determine if SCF support
20286-477: Was conjectured to have been the source. The use of antibiotics in modern medicine began with the discovery of synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes. Various Essential oils have been shown to have anti-microbial properties. Along with this, the plants from which these oils have been derived from can be used as niche anti-microbial agents. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in
20433-522: Was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 or 1933 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany, for which Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Sulfanilamide, the active drug of Prontosil, was not patentable as it had already been in use in the dye industry for some years. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci , but not against enterobacteria . Research
20580-431: Was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but that are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide ). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as
20727-794: Was focused on whether the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Central Intelligence Agency should be incorporated in part or in whole (neither was included). The bill was also controversial for the presence of unrelated " riders ", as well as for eliminating certain union-friendly civil service and labor protections for department employees. Without these protections, employees could be expeditiously reassigned or dismissed on grounds of security, incompetence or insubordination, and DHS would not be required to notify their union representatives. The plan stripped 180,000 government employees of their union rights. In 2002, Bush officials argued that
20874-423: Was identified in the United States resistant to colistin , "the last line of defence" antibiotic . In recent years, even anaerobic bacteria, historically considered less concerning in terms of resistance, have demonstrated high rates of antibiotic resistance, particularly Bacteroides , for which resistance rates to penicillin have been reported to exceed 90%. Per The ICU Book , "The first rule of antibiotics
21021-507: Was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis . These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman , an American microbiologist, in 1947. The term antibiotic
21168-429: Was poorly planned, time-consuming for analysts to use, and lacked adequate justifications. Fusion centers are terrorism prevention and response centers, many of which were created under a joint project between the Department of Homeland Security and the U.S. Department of Justice 's Office of Justice Programs between 2003 and 2007. The fusion centers gather information from government sources as well as their partners in
21315-434: Was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. Observations about the growth of some microorganisms inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms have been reported since the late 19th century. These observations of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in
21462-435: Was the use, from 2002, of the phrase "the homeland" by White House spokespeople. In 2011, the Department of Homeland Security phased out the old Homeland Security Advisory System, replacing it with a two-level National Terrorism Advisory System. The system has two types of advisories: alerts and bulletins. NTAS bulletins permit the secretary to communicate critical terrorism information that, while not necessarily indicative of
21609-560: Was used to treat syphilis in the first half of the 20th century. In 1908, Ehrlich received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his contributions to immunology . Hata was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 and for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 and 1913. The first sulfonamide and the first systemically active antibacterial drug, Prontosil ,
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