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151-591: The American labor movement, encouraged by the protections guaranteed under Section 7(a) of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), undertook a wave of organizing not seen in almost two decades. A series of strikes overtook the country in the summer of 1933. The NIRA established the National Recovery Administration (NRA), and General Hugh S. Johnson was named the agency's administrator. Gen. Johnson had initially expressed

302-610: A colonial-era population center. Prior to the American Revolution, there were 54 homes in Northampton Towne and approximately 330 residents. In 1782, there were 59 houses and over 100 cows were stabled in the town. The town was described by a visitor in 1783, "One gets a glimpse of many good stone houses, many of them very neat, and everything about the premises shows good order and attention. The people are mainly German who speak bad English and distressing German ." In 1795,

453-413: A 5,000-acre (20 km ) part of the land was purchased from Turner's business partner by William Allen , a wealthy shipping merchant and former mayor of Philadelphia . The land was surveyed in 1736 and again in 1753 as part of an effort to construct a road from Easton in the east to Reading in the west. The 1753 survey reported that a log house , owned by Allen and built around 1740, existed near

604-449: A bare paragraph the government's ability to regulate wages and hours. Although the government had argued that the national economic emergency required special consideration, Hughes disagreed. The dire economic circumstances the country faced did not justify the overly broad delegation or overreach of the Act, the majority concluded. "Extraordinary conditions may call for extraordinary remedies. But

755-438: A bill. Overburdened, Moley delegated this work to Hugh S. Johnson. By May 1933, two draft bills had emerged, a cautious and legalistic one by John Dickinson ( Under Secretary of Commerce ) and an ambitious one focusing on trade associations by Hugh Johnson. Many leading businessmen—including Gerard Swope (head of General Electric ), Charles M. Schwab (chairman of Bethlehem Steel Corporation ), E. H. Harriman (chairman of

906-424: A coalition to support passage of the legislation, but these competing interests soon fought one another over the Act's implementation. As a consequence, NIRA collapsed due to failure of leadership and confusion about its goals. By the end of 1934, NIRA leaders had practically abandoned the progressive interventionist policy which motivated the Act's passage, and were supporting free-market philosophies—contributing to

1057-493: A company, for example, would bargain a contract only on behalf of its members. Another union could represent the other bus drivers. In many cases, several unions represented the same workers in one company, each union bargaining a different contract for however many members it represented. Denver Tramway was a major turning point in American labor law because it established the rule of exclusive representation . This rule said that

1208-420: A critical role to play through national planning, limited regulation, the fostering of trade associations , support for "fair" trade practices, and support for "democratization of the workplace" (a standard work week, shorter working hours, and better working conditions). Roosevelt, himself the former head of a trade association, believed that government promotion of "self-organization" by trade associations

1359-594: A failure. A key criticism of the Act at the time as well as more recently is that the NIRA endorsed monopolies, with the attendant economic problems associated with that type of market failure . Even the National Recovery Review Board, established by President Roosevelt in March 1934 to review the performance of the NIRA, concluded that the Act hindered economic growth by promoting cartels and monopolies. One of

1510-446: A firestorm of discontent among business owners, who began an anti-Wagner campaign. Johnson was forced to issue a statement denying that the NRA or the administration was seeking to stamp out company unions. His statement also rejected the concept of exclusive representation. The NLB's interpretation of Section 7(a), however, increasing diverged from that espoused by the NRA. On March 1, 1934,

1661-569: A key aide, Leon Keyserling , Wagner conceived of a "labor court" to hear cases involving labor disputes and fashion enforceable resolutions. Roosevelt evinced no interest in such a bill, so Wagner proceeded without him. Labor leaders were consulted in January 1934, and a bill was drafted in February. The "Labor Disputes Act" was introduced in the Senate on March 1, 1934. The bill provided statutory authority for

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1812-465: A large fire burned down most of Allentown's central business district between 7th and 8th streets on Hamilton Street. During the 1850s, however, the city began recovering. A new bridge was built across the Lehigh River, and brick buildings were constructed to replace wooden ones that were burned in the 1848 fire. In 1852, the first Allentown Fair , now one of the nation's longest continual annual fairs,

1963-561: A living there. Title II, Sections 210–219 provided for revenues to fund the Act, and Section 220 appropriated money for the Act's implementation. Title III of the Act contained miscellaneous provisions, and transferred the authority to engage in public works from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to the Public Works Administration. Implementation of the act began immediately, with the NRA and PWA

2114-520: A major regional and national center for banking and finance. In 1860, William H. Ainey founded Allentown Savings and served as its first president. In 1864, Second National Bank of Allentown was formed, and Ainey was elected its first president, a position he held until his death. Ainey contributed to Allentown's industrial and retail growth, helping finance Iowa Barb Wire Company, which was later absorbed by American Steel & Wire , Pioneer Silk Factory, Palace Silk Mill, and Allentown Spinning Company. In

2265-474: A major role not only in moving congressional Democrats to favour prolabor legislation but also in moving the Democratic party itself left of center.” The bill had a more difficult time in the Senate. The National Association of Manufacturers and Chamber of Commerce opposed its passage due to the labor provision. Despite the positions of these two important trade associations, most businesses initially supported

2416-489: A material fact, or make or cause to be made any false or fraudulent statements or representations, or make or use or cause to be made or used any false bill, receipt, voucher, roll, account, claim, certificate, affidavit, or deposition, knowing the same to contain any fraudulent or fictitious statement or entry , in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States or of any corporation in which

2567-568: A nationwide strike. At a White House conference on June 12, 1934, Roosevelt called together Wagner, Walsh, U.S. Department of Labor secretary Frances Perkins , Senate majority leader Joseph T. Robinson , Representative Joseph W. Byrns and several aides. After discussion, Roosevelt himself dictated Public Resolution No. 44. The resolution authorized the president to create one or more new labor boards to enforce Section 7(a) by conducting investigations, subpoenaing evidence and witnesses, holding elections and issuing orders. Public Resolution No. 44

2718-611: A new military unit, placing Captain Samuel Yohe of Easton and Thomas W. Lynn in charge and awarding them the respective ranks of colonel and major. Tilghman H. Good of South Whitehall Township , previously captain of the Allentown militia known as the Allen Rifles and commander of the 4th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment , was placed in charge of the 1st Pennsylvania's Company I, which included his former Allen Rifles subordinates and members of

2869-692: A population of 125,845 as of the 2020 census and the most populous city in the Lehigh Valley metropolitan area, which had a population of 861,899 and was the 68th-most populous metropolitan area in the nation as of 2020. Founded in 1762, Allentown is located on the Lehigh River , a 109-mile-long (175 km) tributary of the Delaware River . It is the largest of three adjacent cities, including Bethlehem and Easton in Lehigh and Northampton counties, in

3020-561: A post office established inside Compass and Square Hotel in the present-day Penn National Bank building at 645 Hamilton Street in Allentown. In the 1810 U.S. census , the city's population exceeded 700 residents, and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania granted Northampton Towne legal standing on March 18, 1811, incorporating it initially as the Borough of Northampton in what was then Northampton County . The new borough's government first undertaking

3171-693: A reputation for flamboyance, offering the latest European fashion apparel. The opening of Hess's was following by the opening of a second major department store in the city, the Zollinger-Harned Company, located in the Zollinger-Harned Company Building on Hamilton Street. In the late 19th century, Allentown also emerged as a major center for the beer brewing industry. Notable Allentown breweries included Horlacher Brewery (founded 1897, closed 1978), Neuweiler Brewery (founded 1875, closed 1968), and Schaefer Beer , whose brewery

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3322-622: A saw mill, a paint factory, two additional shoe factories, a piano factory, flour mills, breweries, and distilleries all opened in Allentown during the Civil War era. In 1883, Allentown Boiler Works was founded in Allentown by Charles Collum. Collum and his partner John D. Knouse built a large facility at 3rd and Gordon streets in Allentown's First Ward near the Lehigh Valley Railroad yard near what later became Kline's Island. The company manufactured iron products, some of which were used in

3473-400: A showing by a substantial number of employees, representational elections to determine majority status. The order appeared to give the winning organization exclusive representation for employees in the bargaining unit, but this interpretation was widely contested. Worse, Roosevelt made the off-hand public comment that the government was seeking to check the growth of company unions. This caused

3624-524: A union had issued a demand for recognition and bargaining. More often than not, an employer's refusal to bargain was the issue. Holding representation elections, much less establishing bargaining units or determining majority status, was not even considered by the Board. Employers, however, quickly established company unions and announced that these were the only proper representatives of the workers. Unions responded by holding strikes, demanding to be recognized as

3775-424: A union which won the majority of votes in an election would win the right to represent all workers. Even when several unions competed against one another and no union won a majority of the votes, the union with the most votes still won the right to represent all workers. President Roosevelt quickly disavowed the Board's exclusive representation rule. The United Auto Workers had organized more than 50,000 workers in

3926-418: Is a tendency to enunciate the 'v' with open lips, to soften the hard 'g' into 'ch,' and to use too frequently such words as 'already,' 'yet,' and 'once.' Here also are heard such colloquialisms as 'the pie is all,' (all gone) and 'it wonders (mystifies) me.' In October 1945, following the end of World War II , Western Electric opened a plant on Union Boulevard in Allentown. Six years later, on October 1, 1951,

4077-519: Is widely considered a policy failure , both in the 1930s and by historians today. Disputes over the reasons for this failure continue. Among the suggested causes are that the act promoted economically harmful monopolies , lacked critical support from the business community, and that it was poorly administered. The NIRA had no mechanisms for handling these problems, which led Congress to pass the National Labor Relations Act in 1935. The act

4228-402: Is without precedent. It supplies no standards for any trade, industry, or activity. It does not undertake to prescribe rules of conduct to be applied to particular states of fact determined by appropriate administrative procedure. Instead of prescribing rules of conduct, it authorizes the making of codes to prescribe them. For that legislative undertaking, section 3 sets up no standards, aside from

4379-558: The 47th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment , a new unit commonly known as the 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers. Good secured help from William H. Gausler of Allentown, who was commissioned as a major with the regiment's central command staff, and John Peter Shindel Gobin , a senior officer with the Sunbury Guards in Northumberland County , who was repeatedly cited for valor and was promoted to colonel and ultimately commanding officer of

4530-538: The 73rd US Congress to authorize the president to regulate industry for fair wages and prices that would stimulate economic recovery. It also established a national public works program known as the Public Works Administration (PWA). The National Recovery Administration (NRA) portion was widely hailed in 1933, but by 1934 business opinion of the act had soured. The legislation was enacted in June 1933 during

4681-633: The Agricultural Adjustment Act to stabilize the nation's agricultural industry. Enactment of the National Industrial Recovery Act climaxed the first 100 days of Roosevelt's presidency . Hugh S. Johnson , Raymond Moley , Donald Richberg , Rexford Tugwell , Jerome Frank , and Bernard Baruch —key Roosevelt advisors—believed that unrestrained competition had helped cause the Great Depression and that government had

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4832-591: The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America and chairman of the Labor Advisory Board of the NRA. Three members represented industry: General Electric president Gerard Swope ; Louis Kirstein , the vice president of Filene's of Boston (a department store); and Walter C. Teagle , president of Standard Oil of New Jersey . The chairman of the NLB was United States Senator Robert F. Wagner . Although

4983-732: The Battle of St. Johns Bluff in Florida (October 1–3, 1862) before suffering a costly defeat in the Second Battle of Pocotaligo in South Carolina (October 21–23, 1862). They were the only Pennsylvania regiment to fight in the Union Army 's 1864 Red River campaign across Louisiana . While sustaining numerous casualties during the Red River campaign in the spring of 1864, the 47th Pennsylvania helped turn

5134-571: The False Claims Act of 1863 to read: ... or whoever , for the purpose of obtaining or aiding to obtain the payment or approval of such claim, or for the purpose and with the intent of cheating and swindling or defrauding the Government of the United States, or any department thereof, or any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder, shall knowingly and willfully falsify or conceal or cover up by any trick, scheme, or device

5285-513: The Great Depression as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal legislative program. Section 7(a) of the bill, which protected collective bargaining rights for unions , proved contentious (especially in the Senate ). Congress eventually enacted the legislation and President Roosevelt signed the bill into law on June 16, 1933. The Act had two main titles ( sections ) . Title I

5436-685: The Historical Society of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, included 42 city blocks and 756 lots, most of which were 60 feet (18 m) in width and 230 feet (70 m) in depth. The city was initially located between present-day 4th and 10th streets and Union and Liberty streets and was initially named Northampton Towne. Many streets on the original plan were named for Allen's children, including Margaret (present-day 5th Street), William (now 6th Street), James (now 8th Street), Ann (now 9th Street), and John (now Walnut Street). Allen Street (now 7th Street),

5587-541: The Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon . To combat the growing economic decline, Hoover organized a number of voluntary measures with businesses, encouraged state and local government responses, and accelerated federal building projects. However, his policies had little or no effect on economic recovery. Toward the end of his term, however, Hoover supported several legislative solutions which he felt might lift

5738-571: The U.S. Gazetteer described Allentown as: A handsome and flourishing town of Northampton County, pleasantly situated on the point of land formed by the junction of the Jordan Creek and Little Lehigh . It is regularly laid out and contains about ninety dwellings, a German Lutheran and a Calvinist (Zion) Church, an Academy and three merchant mills. In 1792, land north of Allentown was purchased by Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company for coal mining , but it initially proved difficult to transport

5889-735: The USS Yorktown ; USS Enterprise ; the 30th Street railroad station in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania; the Triborough Bridge ; the port of Brownsville ; Grand Coulee Dam ; Boulder Dam ; Fort Peck Dam ; Bonneville Dam ; and the Overseas Highway connecting Key West , Florida, with the mainland. The agency survived until 1943, when the Reorganization Act of 1939 consolidated most federal public works and work relief functions of

6040-493: The Union Pacific Railroad ), and Henry I. Harriman , president of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce —helped draft the legislation. A two-part bill, the first section promoting cooperative action among business to achieve fair competition and provide for national planning and a second section establishing a national public works program, was submitted to Congress on May 15, 1933. The House of Representatives easily passed

6191-530: The University of Wisconsin Law School , was its chairman; Harry A. Millis , professor of economics at the University of Chicago , and Edwin S. Smith , Commissioner of Labor and Industry for the state of Massachusetts, were its members. The new law encouraged the proliferation of labor boards to cover various segments of industry. Roosevelt duly complied with business demands for these boards. Each board interpreted

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6342-598: The Weirton Steel Company held a private election rather than submit to one ran and monitored by the NLB. The Budd Manufacturing Company established a company union, then refused to bargain with the AFL affiliate in the plant. To strengthen the NLB's powers vis-a-vis employers, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6511 on December 16, 1933. The order ratified the Board's prior activities, including its decisions and representational elections. The order also authorized

6493-588: The "Code of Fair Competition for the Live Poultry Industry of the Metropolitan Area in and about the City of New York." The goal of the code was to ensure that live poultry (provided to kosher slaughterhouses for butchering and sale to observant Jews) were fit for human consumption and to prevent the submission of false sales and price reports. The industry was almost entirely centered on New York City. Under

6644-487: The 1840s, iron ore beds were discovered in hills around Allentown, and a furnace was constructed in 1846 by Allentown Iron Core Company for production of pig iron , a vital component used in the manufacturing of steel . The furnace opened in 1847 under supervision of Samuel Lewis, an expert in iron production , and was followed by the opening of other Allentown plants for production of a wide variety of metal products. In 1860, several smaller iron companies merged to create

6795-489: The Act led to a massive wave of union organizing punctuated by employer and union violence, general strikes , and recognition strikes . At the outset, NRA Administrator Hugh Johnson naïvely believed that Section 7(a) would be self-enforcing, but he quickly learned otherwise. On August 5, 1933, the National Labor Board was established under the auspices of the NRA to implement the collective bargaining provisions of

6946-492: The Act. The premiere symbol of the NIRA was the Blue Eagle . By the end of 1934, large and small business owners and most of the public had turned against the NRA. Roosevelt himself shifted his views on the best way to achieve economic recovery, and began a new legislative program (known as the " Second New Deal ") in 1935. Implementation of Section 7(a) of the NIRA proved immensely problematic as well. The protections of

7097-637: The Act. The act was implemented by the NRA and the PWA. Large numbers of regulations were generated under the authority granted to the NRA by the Act, which led to a significant loss of business support for the legislation. NIRA was set to expire in June 1935, but in a major constitutional ruling the Supreme Court held Title I of the Act unconstitutional on May 27, 1935, in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States . The National Industrial Recovery Act

7248-536: The Act. The National Labor Board, too, proved to be ineffective, and on July 5, 1935, a new law—the National Labor Relations Act —superseded the NIRA and established a new, long-lasting federal labor policy. NIRA also created a Public Works Administration (not to be confused with the Works Progress Administration (WPA) of 1935). The leadership of the Public Works Authority was torn over

7399-573: The Allentown Rolling Mill Company, which became Allentown's largest iron company and contributed to the city and the greater Lehigh Valley region's emergence as a major source for iron ore. In 1850, Leh's , a shoe and ready-to-wear clothing store, was opened in the city by Henry Leh. By 1861, with the Civil War commencing, Leh's emerged as a major source of military boots for the Union Army . In addition to Leh's, eight brick yards,

7550-485: The Board issued its decision in Denver Tramway Corporation . The Board held that, where a union had obtained a majority of the votes cast in a government-sponsored representational election, any collective bargaining agreement would have to cover all employees in the bargaining unit. Until Denver Tramway , unions had bargained only for their own members. A union which represented only half the bus drivers in

7701-408: The Board to "settle by mediation, conciliation or arbitration all controversies between employers and employees which tend to impede the purpose of the National Industrial Recovery Act." But E.O. 6511 said nothing about elections, and did not address the Board's enforcement powers. Roosevelt issued a new order, E.O. 6580, on February 1, 1934. The order gave the Board explicit power to authorize, upon

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7852-407: The Board's powers, duties or procedures, but he did assert that the board should 'consider, adjust, and settle differences and controversies' arising in labor disputes. The NLB had seven members. Three members represented labor: American Federation of Labor (AFL) president William Green ; United Mine Workers of America president John L. Lewis ; and Leo Wolman , formerly director of research for

8003-662: The Civil War in the Union's favor with victories in General Sheridan's 1864 Shenandoah Valley campaign across Virginia, including in the Battles of Berryville , Opequan , Fisher's Hill , and Cedar Creek and then again contributing to the defense of the nation's capital following Lincoln's assassination on April 15, 1865. Other known Union Army units from Allentown included the 5th, 41st, 128th , and 176th Pennsylvania Infantries. On October 19, 1899, Allentown erected and dedicated

8154-592: The Democratic leadership in Congress understood the need for action. A wave of large strikes swept the country in April and May, and a significant number of them were over the recognition issue. Senator David I. Walsh , Democrat from Massachusetts and chair of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, quickly wrote a substitute bill, the "National Industrial Adjustment Bill". The Walsh bill significantly altered many of

8305-579: The Jordan Artillerist, another Allentown-based militia. In April 1861, these Allentown units were deployed in response to President Lincoln's call for 75,000 volunteers to defend the national capital in Washington, D.C. , following the Confederate bombardment of Fort Sumter. After the Civil War's end, many of these soldiers were named Pennsylvania First Defenders in recognition of their role as one

8456-615: The Lehigh Canal with direct competition for coal transport. Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad ordered four locomotives, and train stations were built in Allentown, Easton , and Mauch Chunk . In September 1855, the railroad became operational with the Central Railroad of New Jersey providing transport between Allentown and New York City . Transport between Allentown and Philadelphia was made available through Perkiomen Railroad, which operated between Norristown and Freemansburg . In

8607-527: The Lehigh Valley region of eastern Pennsylvania. Allentown is located 48 miles (77 km) north of Philadelphia and 78 miles (126 km) west of New York City . In the early 1700s, the area that is present-day Allentown was a wilderness of scrub oak , where the Lenape , a Indigenous Peoples tribe, fished for trout and hunted for deer, grouse, and other game. In 1736, this large area north of Philadelphia

8758-473: The NIRA staff felt the Act would survive a court test, the U.S. Department of Justice had on March 25, 1935, declined to appeal an appellate court ruling overturning the lumber industry code on the grounds that the case was not a good test of the NIRA's constitutionality. The Justice Department's action worried many in the administration. But on April 1, 1935, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld

8909-551: The NIRA. Senator Bennett Champ Clark introduced an amendment to weaken Section 7(a), but Wagner and Senator George W. Norris led the successful opposition to the change. The bulk of the Senate debate, however, turned on the bill's suspension of antitrust law . Senators William E. Borah , Burton K. Wheeler , and Hugo Black opposed any relaxation of the Sherman Antitrust Act , arguing that this would exacerbate existing severe economic inequality and concentrate wealth in

9060-409: The NLB of its jurisdiction over the auto industry. Worse, the agreement provided no authority for holding elections, and thus no means of determining which organizations truly represented workers. Senator Wagner, convinced by the fall of 1933 that the NLB needed replacement, began work on legislation which would establish a new statutory regime for labor relations in the United States. Consulting with

9211-445: The NLB to determine whether to apply the rule, given the facts of each case. Wagner's bill received a hostile reception in Congress. The business community fought the bill ferociously, arguing that it contravened Roosevelt's own policies in the automobile case. The press, too, was adamantly opposed to the legislation. Administration spokespersons were ambivalent about the bill, when they mentioned it at all. Nevertheless, Roosevelt and

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9362-534: The NLB's mandate was vague, its procedures undefined and its enforcement powers nonexistent, Sen. Wagner—who had been one of the primary authors of the NIRA—was determined to make the board work along the self-policing lines previously announced by Gen. Johnson. Initially, the NLB attempted to merely be a mediator in labor disputes. The NIRA protected the right of workers to form unions of their own choosing. And it required employers to engage in good-faith negotiations when

9513-460: The National Industrial Recovery Act was unconstitutional. First, Hughes concluded that the law was void for vagueness because of the critical term "fair competition" was nowhere defined in the Act. Second, Hughes found the Act's delegation of authority to the executive branch unconstitutionally overbroad : To summarize and conclude upon this point: Section 3 of the Recovery Act (15 USCA 703)

9664-506: The Soldiers and Sailors Monument at Hamilton and S. 7th streets in the Center City , where it still stands, in honor of these Union soldiers from Allentown and local Lehigh Valley towns and boroughs who were killed in defense of the Union's preservation during the Civil War. Beginning in the late 18th century, the city began to slowly grow as a hub for commerce and industrialization and as

9815-515: The Supreme Court's strict interpretation of the interstate commerce clause and worried that other legislation was jeopardized. In 1934, at the request of the Secretary Ickes, who wished to use the statute criminalizing making false statements to enforce Section 9(c) of the NIRA against producers of "hot oil", oil produced in violation of production restrictions established pursuant to the NIRA, Congress passed Pub. L.   73–394 , 48  Stat.   996 , enacted June 18, 1934 , which amended

9966-401: The U.S. formally entering World War I in 1917. The British nicknamed Mack AC 's five and seven-ton trucks the "Bulldog". Mack eventually grew to have eight manufacturing plants in Allentown and adopted the bulldog as it corporate brand. Beginning in the early 20th century, Syrian Christians from the region of Wadi al-Nasara ('the Christian Valley') began settling in Allentown, initially

10117-414: The United States of America is a stockholder ... This form of the statute, in slightly modified form, still exists today at 18 U.S.C.   § 1001 . Allentown, Pennsylvania Allentown ( Pennsylvania Dutch : Allenschteddel , Allenschtadt , or Ellsdaun ) is the county seat of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania , United States. It is the third-most populous city in Pennsylvania with

10268-417: The argument necessarily stops short of an attempt to justify action which lies outside the sphere of constitutional authority. Extraordinary conditions do not create or enlarge constitutional power." Although the decision emasculated NIRA, it had little practical impact, as Congress was unlikely to have reauthorized the Act in any case. At the time and in recent analyzes, NIRA is generally considered to be

10419-429: The automobile industry in 1933. But the auto companies rejected the union's demand for recognition, set up company unions and refused to allow the NLB to mediate. Roosevelt intervened personally in the dispute. On March 25, 1934, Roosevelt announced a settlement that provided for proportional, rather than exclusive, representation—thus giving the company unions equal footing with the Auto Workers. The agreement also stripped

10570-464: The bells down to cast into munitions. The bells were transported north to present-day Allentown by two farmers and wagon masters, John Snyder and Henry Bartholomew, and then hidden under floorboards in the basement of Zion Reformed Church at present-day 622 Hamilton Street in Center City Allentown , just prior to Philadelphia's September 1777 fall to the British. In 1803, the city, whose mail had previously been received in neighboring Bethlehem , had

10721-472: The bill in just seven days. The most contentious issue was the inclusion of Section 7(a), which protected collective bargaining rights for unions . Section 7(a) was nearly eliminated from the bill, but Senator Wagner, Jerome Frank, and Leon Keyserling (another Roosevelt aide) worked to retain the section in order to win the support of the American labor movement. According to one study ... The capitalist’s opposition to section 7a in congressional hearings

10872-471: The cartels. Studies of the steel, automobile manufacturing, lumber, textile, and rubber industries and the level and source of support for the NIRA tend to support this conclusion. Without the support of industry, the Act could never have performed as it was intended. A third major criticism of the Act is that it was poorly administered. The Act purposefully brought together competing for interests (labor and business, big business and small business, etc.) in

11023-435: The city emerged in present-day Center City , which was then referred to as downtown Allentown. At least seven cinemas and stage theaters were developed on Hamilton Street between 5th and 10th streets. By the mid-1960s, Allentown's economy had been booming for decades but the city's rising taxes and regulations prohibiting expansion of the city's geographic limits began leading many of the city's residents, especially those in

11174-456: The city's lax zoning and city codes. With Allentown's neighborhoods and school system declining, the city focused on attempting to develop its Hamilton Street retail district, largely ignoring Allentown neighborhoods not located in Center City. This also exacerbated the flight of Allentown families to the city's suburbs, leading to the development of shopping centers and services to accommodate

11325-479: The city's main street, was named for Allen himself. Hamilton Street was named for James Hamilton, deputy governor of colonial-era Pennsylvania from 1748 to 1754. Gordon Street was named for Patrick Gordon , an earlier deputy governor of colonial Pennsylvania. Chew Street was named for Benjamin Chew , and Turner Street was named for Allen's business partner Joseph Turner. Allen hoped that the city would displace Easton as

11476-399: The city's name was officially changed to Allentown. But it soon faced major challenges. In 1841, a flood swept away Hamilton Street Bridge and inflicted substantial damage on areas of the city near the Lehigh River. Two years later, in 1843, Northampton Bank failed following excessive speculation by the bank, resulting in financial ruin for many bank customers. Five years later, on June 1, 1848,

11627-594: The city, and expanded their ranks, which were ultimately incorporated into the Continental Army . The burden of supplying the local militias fell on the people, and requisitions for food, grain, cattle, horses, and cloth were common. During the Revolutionary War, Hessian prisoners of war were kept in Allentown in the vicinity of present-day Seventh and Gordon streets. Allentown also housed four hospital structures, including one at Zion Reformed Church and one on

11778-511: The code-making authority thus conferred is an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power. Finally, in a very restrictive reading of what constituted interstate commerce, Hughes held that the "'current' or 'flow'" of commerce involved was simply too minute to constitute interstate commerce, and subsequently Congress had no power under the Commerce Clause to enact legislation affecting such commercial transactions. The Court dismissed with

11929-479: The codes from the federal antitrust laws. Title I, Section 7(a) guaranteed the right of workers to form unions and banned yellow-dog contracts : ... employees shall have the right to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing, and shall be free from the interference restraint, or coercion of employers of labor, or their agents, in the designation of such representatives or in self-organization or in other concerted activities for

12080-659: The collapse of almost all industry codes. There are a wide range of additional critiques as well. One is that NIRA's industry codes interfered with capital markets, inhibiting economic recovery. But more recent analyzes conclude that NIRA had little effect on capital markets one way or the other. Another is that political uncertainty created by the NIRA caused a drop in business confidence, inhibiting recovery. But at least one study has shown no effect whatsoever. Section 7(a) led to significant increases in union organizing, but NRA administrative rulings effectively gutted this section by permitting company union . Although Section 7(a)

12231-609: The company manufactured and released the world's first transistor , which was produced at the Allentown-based plant, and the Allentown-based company emerged as a leader in the nation's post-war electronics revolution. By the mid-20th century, Allentown was a major retailing and entertainment center distinct and separate from Philadelphia and New York City . Hess's, Leh's, and Zollinger department stores led to retail sector growth in Allentown, and dozens of smaller retail stores, restaurants, hotels, banks, and professional offices in

12382-688: The constitutionality of the NIRA in the Schechter case. Although Donald Richberg and others felt the government's case in Schechter was not a strong one, the Schechters were determined to appeal their conviction. So the government appealed first, and the Supreme Court heard oral argument on May 2 and 3. On May 27, 1935, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. The United States that Title I of

12533-558: The construction of high-profile construction projects, including the building of the White House in Washington, D.C. , and the U.S. Military Academy at West Point . The company's boilers and kilns were used for the production of iron products sold nationally and internationally, including to customers in Canada , Cuba , and the Philippines . Brickworks flourished in Allentown through

12684-416: The continuation of the Great Depression. Others point out that the cartels created by the Act were inherently unstable (as all cartels are), and that the effect on prices was minimal because the codes collapsed so quickly. A second key criticism of the Act is that it lacked support from the business community, and thus was doomed to failure. Business support for national planning and government intervention

12835-602: The country out of the depression. The final attempt of the Hoover administration to rescue the economy was the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act (which provided funds for public works programs) and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) (which provided low-interest loans to businesses). Hoover was defeated for re-election by Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election . Roosevelt

12986-640: The courts. The constitutionality of the NIRA was tested in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States , 295 U.S. 495 (1935). Courts identified three problems with the NIRA: "(i) was the subject matter sought to be regulated by the power of Congress; (ii) if the regulations violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution ; and (iii) had Congress properly delegated its power to the executive." Although Roosevelt, most of his aides, Johnson, and

13137-467: The decision to strike. Both decisions have had stabilizing influences on collective bargaining relationships. The doctrines laid down by the NLB continue to reverberate in 2006, as the NLRB wrestles with the implications of card check and voluntary recognition. National Industrial Recovery Act The National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 ( NIRA ) was a US labor law and consumer law passed by

13288-631: The demand in these expanding suburban communities. In 1966, Whitehall Mall , the first closed shopping mall north of Philadelphia, opened in Whitehall Township. Ten years later, in 1976, the even larger Lehigh Valley Mall opened north of U.S. Route 22 in Fullerton . Stores in Allentown's downtown shopping district began closing, replaced with stores whose customers were less affluent. Large areas of Allentown's downtown were subsequently razed and replaced with parking lots. The downtown business district

13439-442: The disbursement of money. Harold Ickes, too, was determined to ensure that graft and corruption did not tarnish the agency's reputation and lead to loss of political support in Congress, and so moved cautiously in spending the agency's money. Although the U.S. Supreme Court would rule Title I of NIRA unconstitutional, the severability clause in the Act enabled the PWA to survive. Among the projects it funded between 1935 and 1939 are:

13590-513: The early 20th century. Pennsylvania Guide , compiled by the Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration , described the Pennsylvania Dutch community's impact on Allentown's linguistic landscape, reporting in 1940 that: Allentown is among the few large Pennsylvania cities where newspapers still carry columns written in the dialect. Although English predominates on the streets, there

13741-480: The economic effects of monopoly and cartels is higher prices—this was seen as necessary because the severe deflation of 1929–33 had depressed prices 20% and more. There is anecdotal evidence that these higher prices led to some stability in industry, but a number of scholars maintain that these prices were so high that economic recovery was inhibited. But other economists disagree, pointing to far more important monetary, budgetary, and tax policies as contributors to

13892-602: The economy that NRA proved to be the more important agency by far. NIRA, as implemented by the NRA, became notorious for generating large numbers of regulations. By March 1934 the "NRA was engaged chiefly in drawing up these industrial codes for all industries to adopt." The agency approved 557 basic and 189 supplemental industry codes in two years. Between 4,000 and 5,000 business practices were prohibited, some 3,000 administrative orders running to over 10,000 pages promulgated, and thousands of opinions and guides from national, regional, and local code boards interpreted and enforced

14043-597: The end of World War I . The clay unearthed in various sections of Allentown and the city's suburbs proved suitable in manufacturing building brick and fire brick . Bricks were the first Allentown products shipped by rail and sold nationally. A vibrant food processing industry began emerging in Allentown following the arrival of predominantly German immigrant bakers, who were among Allentown's first settlers. In 1887, Wilson Arbogast and Morris C. Bastian formed Arbogast and Bastian, which provided large scale commercial slaughtering. With industrialization, Allentown emerged as

14194-453: The evening of June 9 and all day June 10 to reconcile the two versions of the bill, approving a final version on the afternoon of June 10. The House approved the conference committee's bill on the evening of June 10. After extensive debate, the Senate approved the final bill, 46-to-39, on June 13. President Roosevelt signed the bill into law on June 16, 1933. The National Industrial Recovery Act had two major titles ( sections ) . Title I

14345-466: The existence of the NLB, and gave it exclusive enforcement authority over Section 7(a) of the NIRA. The NLB was given the authority to hold elections, but it was also authorized to prohibit acts of coercion by the employer against employees and required employers to bargain in good faith with the duly elected representatives of workers. The bill explicitly incorporated the concept of exclusive representation. However, it did not require it, and left it up to

14496-564: The federal government into the new Federal Works Agency . President Roosevelt sought an extension of NIRA on February 20, 1935. But the business backlash against the New Deal, coupled with continuing congressional concern over the Act's suspension of antitrust law, left the President's request politically dead. A U.S. Senate committee investigation into the effectiveness of the NRA, PWA, and Section 7(a) revealed only limited political support for

14647-658: The first Patriot resistance to British colonialism in the Thirteen Colonies began in and around present-day Allentown. On December 21, 1774, a Committee of Observation was formed by Allentown-area patriots. Following the Declaration of Independence 's unanimous signing by the Second Continental Congress , British governing control in Allentown began to break down as patriot militias expanded their resistance. The patriot militias also pressured Tories out of

14798-461: The first five units to answer Lincoln's call for volunteers to defend the national capital. After protecting Washington, D.C., from April to July 1861, they were honorably discharged and returned home. However, a significant number of them reenlisted with the Union Army to defend the nation amidst the Civil War's escalation. On August 5, 1861, Andrew Gregg Curtin , Pennsylvania's Civil War -era governor, granted Tilghman H. Good authority to create

14949-452: The grounds of the present-day Farr Building , that were used in treating wounded Continental Army troops. After crossing the Delaware and prevailing in the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Continental Army commander George Washington and his staff traveled through Allentown, where they proceeded up present-day Lehigh Street , then called Water Street. They stopped at the foot of

15100-528: The hands of the rich (a severe problem which many economists at the time believed was one of the causes of the Great Depression). Wagner defended the bill, arguing that the bill's promotion of codes of fair trade practices would help create progressive standards for wages, hours, and working conditions, and eliminate sweatshops and child labor. The Senate passed the amended legislation 57-to-24 on June 9. A House–Senate conference committee met throughout

15251-438: The hope that the NIRA would be self-policing system. But that had clearly not happened, and formal governmental machinery was needed to handle the sudden wave of labor activity. Subsequently, Johnson—acting on a joint motion from the NRA's Industrial Advisory Board and Labor Advisory Board—created the NLB. President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced the NLB's formation on August 5, 1933. Roosevelt issued no executive order defining

15402-401: The industries covered by the codes, while Section 7(c) authorized the President to impose such standards on codes when voluntary agreement could not be reached. Title I, Section 9 authorized the regulation of oil pipelines and prices for the transportation of all petroleum products by pipeline. Section 9(b) permitted the executive to take over any oil pipeline company, subsidiary, or business if

15553-553: The land, including present-day Allentown, was named and laid out by Allen. A rivalry between the Penns and Allen may have inspired Allen to acquire the land and found the city. In 1763, a year after Allentown's founding, an effort was made by Allen and others to move the county seat from Easton to Allentown, but the Penns' influence prevailed and the county seat remained in Easton. The city's original organization, whose archives are now housed at

15704-481: The late 1870s, Allentown's iron industry collapsed, leaving the city economically depressed. Efforts were made to diversify the city's industrial base, including convincing Phoenix Manufacturing Company to open a silk mill in Allentown. Adelaide Mill at Race and Court streets prompted the opening of Pioneer Silk Mill in 1886, and the city quickly emerged as a national leader in silk manufacturing. The silk industry grew to ultimately become Allentown's largest industry in

15855-400: The late 18th century. David Deshler, Allentown's first shopkeeper, opened a sawmill in the city in 1782. By 1814, industrial plants in Allentown included flour mills, sawmills, two saddle makers, a tannery and tan yard, a woolen mill, a card weaving plant, two gunsmiths, two tobacconists, two clockmakers, and two printers. In 1855, the first railroads to reach Allentown were opened, presenting

16006-587: The late 19th century and remained the city's largest industry through the end of the 20th century. In 1914, there were 26 silk mills in the city. By 1928, after the introduction of rayon , the number of Allentown silk mills grew to 85, and over 10,000 people were employed in the Allentown silk industry at the industry's height in the 1940s. In 1896, Max Hess, a retailer from Perth Amboy, New Jersey , visited Allentown and set about developing Allentown's first department store. He and his brother Charles opened Hess Brothers at 9th and Hamilton streets. Hess's developed

16157-696: The latter part of the 20th century, presenting a major challenge to Allentown's city government and the Allentown School District as it confronted greatly diminished resources. Allentown School District's financial challenges, in turn, further increased the working class flight to Allentown's suburbs, creating a sea change in the city's demographics. With the departure of many working-class families from older Center City neighborhoods , many homes were sold to landlords who converted them into inexpensive multifamily apartments, many of which became government-subsidized housing projects that were permitted under

16308-401: The law among Senators. The Senate bill reauthorizing NIRA provided for only a 10-month extension, with significant new limitations on NRA powers. The House reauthorization bill contained no new limits on the NRA, and proposed a two-year extension. By May 1935, the issue was moot as the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled Title I of NIRA unconstitutional. On April 13, 1934, the President had approved

16459-503: The law as it wished, and American labor law fragmented. Wagner, however, proceeded to draft and in 1935 introduced a new bill, the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA). The NLRA was enacted and is the basis for private-sector labor relations in the United States to this day. Many of the legal doctrines established by the National Labor Board deeply influenced American labor relations. The Board's exclusive representation doctrine

16610-427: The law more heavily depending on the longevity of the collective bargaining relationship between the employer and union. Other Board decisions, such as Bee Bus Line Company (decided May 10, 1934) and Eagle Rubber Company (decided May 17, 1934), laid down the stipulation that a properly conducted, government-monitored representational election required good-faith bargaining, and that collective bargaining must precede

16761-552: The leading agencies. Hugh Johnson spent most of May and June planning for implementation, and the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was established on June 20, 1933—a scant four days after the law's enactment. Roosevelt angered Johnson by having him administer only the NRA, while the Public Works Administration (PWA) went to Harold L. Ickes . NRA and PWA reported to different cabinet agencies, making coordination difficult, and PWA money flowed so slowly into

16912-704: The location where the Liberty Bell , then known as the State House Bell, was successfully hidden for nine months by American patriots to avoid its capture by the British Army after the fall of Philadelphia during the Revolutionary War . After George Washington's defeat at the Battle of Brandywine in Chadds Ford Township, Pennsylvania on September 11, 1777, the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia

17063-531: The new agency's mission. PWA could initiate its own construction projects, distribute money to other federal agencies to fund their construction projects, or make loans to states and localities to fund their construction projects. But many in the Roosevelt administration felt PWA should not spend money, for fear of worsening the federal deficit, and so funds flowed slowly. Furthermore, the very nature of construction (planning, specifications, and blueprints) also held up

17214-490: The new poultry code, the Schechter brothers were indicted on 60 counts (of which 27 were dismissed by the trial court), acquitted on 14, and convicted in 19. One of the counts on which they were convicted was for selling a diseased bird, leading Hugh Johnson to jokingly call the suit the "sick chicken case". Even before these legal aspects became widely known, a number of court challenges to the NIRA were winding their way through

17365-491: The organization of the workers' choosing and immediate negotiations. Large numbers of workers were summarily fired for striking. The NLB quickly settled on a strategy of suggesting elections as a way of determining majority status and breaking a collective bargaining deadlock. The NLB's opportunity came when the Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers Union launched an organizing drive in the summer of 1933 in

17516-483: The parent company was found in violation of the Act. Title II established the Public Works Administration. Title II, Section 201 established the agency and provided for a two-year sunset provision. Section 202 outlines the types of public works which the new agency may seek to fund or build. Title II, Section 203 authorized the Public Works Administration to provide grants and/or loans to states and localities in order to more rapidly reduce unemployment as well as to use

17667-490: The post- World War II baby boom generation , to flee Allentown for its suburbs. Salisbury , South Whitehall , and Whitehall townships each had large areas of farmland that were prime locations for residential real estate development. Much of Allentown's working class began migrating to these newer, less-expensive housing developments in Allentown's suburbs, which offered lower taxes, more green space, less crime, and newer schools. This demographic trend continued throughout

17818-505: The power of eminent domain to seize land or materials to engage in public works. Title II, Section 204 explicitly provided $ 400 million for the construction of public highways, bridges, roads, railroad crossings, paths, and other transportation projects. Title II, Section 208 authorized the president to expend up to $ 25 million to purchase farms for the purpose of relocating individuals living in overcrowded urban areas (such as cities) to these farms and allowing them to raise crops and earn

17969-463: The provisions of Wagner's bill. It permitted company unions, removed prohibitions on a refusal to bargain, and turned the Board's affirmative duty to determine the outlines of the bargaining unit into a voluntary one. The Walsh bill won almost unanimous support from the president, the cabinet, the Senate and even from Wagner himself. Wagner was unhappy with the number of provisions which had been watered down, but believed that passage of some legislation

18120-447: The purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection; [and] (2) that no employee and no one seeking employment shall be required as a condition of employment to join any company union or to refrain from joining, organizing, or assisting a labor organization of his own choosing... . Title I, Section 7(b) permitted the establishment of standards regarding maximum hours of labor, minimum rates of pay, and working conditions in

18271-419: The regiment. Companies A and E of the regiment were recruited primarily from Easton and Northampton County; Companies B, G, I, and K were largely recruited from Allentown; Company C was recruited from Northumberland and Juniata counties; Company F was primarily composed of men from Catasaqua ; and Companies D and H were recruited from Perry County . The 47th Pennsylvania Volunteers achieved Union victories at

18422-551: The region's high quality anthracite coal over the primitive trail system that then existed, resulting in only a limited amount of anthracite being mined until 1818, when the company began constructing the Lehigh Canal to transport coal from Mauch Chunk , later renamed Jim Thorpe, down the Lehigh River to the river's confluence with the Delaware River in Easton . The opening of Lehigh Canal in 1818 quickly transformed Allentown and

18573-486: The result of missionary activity in their villages by Pennsylvanian missionaries. The Syrian community eventually became a significant component of the city, largely concentrated in Allentown's Sixth Ward. There were an estimated 5,200 Americans of Syrian descent in Allentown and the Lehigh Valley in 2015. Like several other regions in Pennsylvania, Allentown residents continued speaking Pennsylvania German well into

18724-470: The seat of Northampton County and become a major national center for commerce due to its location along the Lehigh River and its proximity to Philadelphia, which was then the nation's largest and most influential city. In 1767, Allen granted the land to his son James. Allentown played a central role in both inspiring the American Revolution and supporting the subsequent Revolutionary War . Some of

18875-410: The silk stocking mills around Reading, Pennsylvania . The employers refused to recognize the union, and 10,000 workers went on strike. On August 10, 1933, the NLB mediated a settlement. Known as the "Reading Formula," the settlement consisted of four parts: (1) That the union call off the strike; (2) That all employees be rehired immediately, without retaliation; (3) That the NLB hold elections in which

19026-403: The statement of the general aims of rehabilitation, correction, and expansion described in section 1. In view of the scope of that broad declaration and of the nature of the few restrictions that are imposed, the discretion of the President in approving or prescribing codes, and thus enacting laws for the government of trade and industry throughout the country, is virtually unfettered. We think that

19177-590: The street at a large spring at the present-day Wire Mill. There, Washington and his troops rested and watered their horses, and then proceeded to their post of duty. In 1777, a manufacturer of paper cartridges and muskets for the Continental Army relocated to Allentown from neighboring Bethlehem , and a shop of 16 armourers was established on Little Lehigh Creek , which was used to repair Continental Army weapons and manufacture saddles and scabbards for their use. Allentown holds historical significance as

19328-408: The surrounding Lehigh Valley from a rural agricultural area dominated by German -speaking people into one of America's first urbanized industrialized areas and expanded the city's commercial and industrial capacity. With this, Allentown underwent significant industrialization , ultimately becoming a major center for heavy industry and manufacturing. Allentown's industrial development accelerated in

19479-402: The union won the election. But within months, a large number of employers refused to cooperate with the NLB. The NLB relied on enforcement of its orders through the NRA (which only had the power to remove so-called Blue Eagle industrial code approval from a manufacturer) or prosecution by the U.S. Department of Justice . These weak enforcement powers encouraged employer resistance. In July 1933,

19630-490: The western banks of Jordan Creek . The house was used primarily as a hunting and fishing lodge by Allen, but he also used it to entertain prominent guests, including James Hamilton , his brother-in-law, and John Penn, then governor of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1752, Northampton and Berks counties were formed; Easton was named the county seat of Northampton County, and Reading the county seat of Berks County. In 1762,

19781-795: The workers would vote by secret ballot for their own representatives, and that both parties would negotiate a collective bargaining agreement covering wages, hours and working conditions; and (4) That in the event of any disagreement on any matter, the parties would submit the dispute to the NLB for binding arbitration. The Reading Formula proved useful in settling large numbers of labor disputes, including strikes in silk mills in Paterson, New Jersey ; silk mills in Allentown, Pennsylvania ; tool and die factories in Detroit, Michigan ; and coal mines in Illinois . In most cases,

19932-518: Was "a major landmark in American labor history". The doctrine was later enacted into law as part of the NLRA, and the NLRB continues to apply it today. The Board's decision in Denver Tramway laid the basis as well for the NLRB's concept of mature collective bargaining relations. Under this doctrine, the NLRB has emphasized and de-emphasized various aspects of the NLRA over time, weighing different parts of

20083-511: Was also a major force behind a major modification of the law criminalizing making false statements . The Depression began in the United States in October 1929 and grew steadily worse to its nadir in early 1933. President Herbert Hoover feared that too much intervention or coercion by the government would destroy individuality and self-reliance, which he considered to be important American values. His laissez-faire views appeared to be shared by

20234-507: Was chartered in July 1814, and the first Hamilton Street Bridge, a 530 feet (160 m)-long chain structure, was constructed over the Lehigh River . The bridge featured two suspended lanes, one for east and one for westbound traffic, and a toll house at the bridge's western end. In 1829, Lehigh Canal , a 46.6 miles (75.0 km)-long canal on the Lehigh River's east side, was completed for both ascending and descending navigation. Its construction

20385-613: Was convinced that federal activism was needed to reverse the country's economic decline. In his first hundred days in office, the Congress enacted at Roosevelt's request a series of bills designed to strengthen the banking system, including the Emergency Banking Act , the Glass–Steagall Act (which created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ), and the 1933 Banking Act . The Congress also passed

20536-557: Was deeded by 23 chiefs of the Five Civilized Tribes to three sons of William Penn , founder of the colonial-era Province of Pennsylvania : John Penn , Thomas Penn , and Richard Penn . The price for the land included shoes, buckles, hats, shirts, knives, scissors, combs, needles, looking glasses , rum, and pipes. On May 18, 1732, the land was deeded by Thomas Penn to Joseph Turner , an iron manufacturer and politician from Philadelphia. Two years later, on September 10, 1735,

20687-440: Was devoted to industrial recovery, authorizing the promulgation of industrial codes of fair competition, guaranteed trade union rights, permitted the regulation of working standards, and regulated the price of certain refined petroleum products and their transportation. Title II established the Public Works Administration , outlined the projects and funding opportunities it could engage in. Title II also provided funding for

20838-560: Was devoted to industrial recovery. Title I, Section 2 empowered the President to establish executive branch agencies to carry out the purposes of the Act, and provided for a sunset provision nullifying the Act in two years. The heart of the Act was Title I, Section 3, which permitted trade or industrial associations to seek presidential approval of codes of fair competition (so long as such codes did not promote monopolies or provide unfair competition against small businesses) and provided for enforcement of these codes. Title I, Section 5 exempted

20989-456: Was held. On April 13, 1861, with tensions between the nation's North and South intensifying following the South's secession and the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter , residents of Lehigh and Northampton counties called a public meeting in Easton to take steps to support the federal government . At the meeting, citizens voted to establish and equip the 1st Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry ,

21140-500: Was introduced in the Senate the next day. Amended to expressly protect the right to strike, it passed both houses of Congress on unanimous voice-votes. Roosevelt signed the resolution on June 19, 1934. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6763 on June 29, 1934. The new order abolished the NLB. In its place, it established the National Labor Relations Board . The new NLRB had only three members: Lloyd K. Garrison , dean of

21291-510: Was later acquired by Pabst and Guinness and is now owned by Boston Beer Company , brewer of Samuel Adams beer . In 1905, Jack and Gus Mack moved Mack Trucks , their motor company, from Brooklyn to Allentown, taking over the foundries of Weaver-Hirsh on South 10th Street. By 1914, Mack Trucks developed a global reputation for manufacturing sturdy and reliable trucks and vehicles. Many were sent to Western Front battlefields in France prior to

21442-487: Was left defenseless and American patriots began preparing for what they saw as an imminent British attack on the city. Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council ordered that 11 bells, including the State House Bell, now known as the Liberty Bell, and ten other bells from Philadelphia's Christ Church and St. Peter's Church , be taken down and moved out of Philadelphia to protect them from the British Army , which would melt

21593-423: Was moving on its own industrial legislation. In the Senate, Robert F. Wagner , Edward P. Costigan , and Robert M. La Follette, Jr. were promoting public works legislation, and Hugo Black was pushing short-work-week legislation. Motivated to work on his own industrial relief bill by these efforts, Roosevelt ordered Moley to work with these Senators (and anyone else in government who seemed interested) to craft

21744-534: Was not affected by the Supreme Court's decision in Schechter Poultry, the failure of the section led directly to passage of the National Labor Relations Act in July 1935. Historian Alan Brinkley stated that by 1935 the NIRA was a "woeful failure, even a political embarrassment." Many liberals, probably including Roosevelt, were quietly relieved by its demise. However, New Dealers were worried by

21895-473: Was not convincing enough to persuade an overwhelmingly urban liberal Democratic Congress. As Kenneth Finegold and Theda Skocpol have correctly pointed out, congressional Democrats were eager to consolidate their electoral majorities by supporting and enacting prolabor legislation. With the urban industrial working class becoming a major electoral bloc for urban Democrats, it is not surprising that pressures from industrial workers, both employed and unemployed, played

22046-423: Was ordering that cows in the city be moved from public streets to pastures, which proved unpopular with city residents. The following year, the city became part of Lehigh County , which was partitioned from a western section of Northampton County. Throughout the early 1800s, the city grew primarily as a court and market town. Northampton Bank, the city's first bank located at the northeast corner of Center Square,

22197-449: Was preferable to inaction. He also resolved to draft much stronger legislation after the fall elections. Nevertheless, the Walsh bill faced an uncertain future in the Senate. Congress needed to adjourn and return home to campaign for the fall elections, and the bill promised a lengthy fight. Roosevelt once more directly intervened in order to win labor peace. Steelworker unions were threatening

22348-470: Was rebuilt in an attempt to compete with the newer suburban shopping locations. A multiblock row of stores known as Hamilton Mall was developed, featuring newly covered sidewalks and managed traffic patterns. But the effort was unsuccessful, and two of the city's major department stores, Leh's and Zollingers, were forced to close by 1990. The third, Hess's, was sold to The Bon-Ton in 1994, which closed its Hamilton Mall location two years later in 1996. In 1993,

22499-496: Was the least-intrusive and yet most effective method for achieving national planning and economic improvement. Some work on an industrial relief bill had been done in the weeks following Roosevelt's election, but much of this was in the nature of talk and the exchange of ideas rather than legislative research and drafting. The administration, preoccupied with banking and agriculture legislation, did not begin working on industrial relief legislation until early April. Congress, however,

22650-475: Was the most important factor in making anthracite coal , one of the nation's most important domestic and industrial fuels, available to the nation's largest industrial markets in New York City , Philadelphia , and elsewhere. In 1855, the first railroad was built on the Lehigh River's west side, and rail soon began to surpass river transport as the means for transporting anthracite through the city. In 1838,

22801-420: Was very strong in 1933, but had collapsed by mid-1934. Many studies conclude, however, that business support for NIRA was never uniform. Larger, older businesses embraced the legislation while smaller, newer ones (more nimble in a highly competitive market and with less capital investment to lose if they failed) did not. This is a classic problem of cartels, and thus NIRA codes failed as small business abandoned

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