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67-493: The National Cooperative Soil Survey Program (NCSS) is a partnership led by the United States Department of Agriculture 's Natural Resources Conservation Service of Federal land management agencies, state agricultural experiment stations , counties , conservation districts , and other special-purpose districts that provide soil survey information necessary for understanding, managing, conserving and sustaining

134-507: A soil classification scheme. In 1927 he published a translation of Glinka's The Great Soil Groups of the World and their Development from German to English. His classification scheme became the 1935 system that was modified to become the system published in the 1938 Yearbook of Agriculture, Soils and Men: the 1938 USDA soil taxonomy . At the highest level of classification the soils were divided into pedocals and pedalfers . Pedocals were used in

201-643: A 30-year career with the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, was first chief and within 2 years the Soil Erosion Service moved to Department of Agriculture as the Soil Conservation Service. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) ended up with much of the budget and soils personnel of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, but did not support the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils approach to soil survey. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) pushed farm by farm surveys using

268-671: A bill was introduced into the House of Representatives and later the Senate by Senator George Felix Allen . In 2007 Boyd testified before the United States House Committee on the Judiciary about this legislation. As the organization was making headway by gathering Congressional supporters in 2007 it was revealed that some USDA Farm Services Agency employees were engaged in activities aimed at blocking Congressional legislation that would aid

335-571: A clerk to collect agricultural statistics, the preparation of statewide reports about crops in different regions, and the application of chemistry to agriculture. Ellsworth was called the "Father of the Department of Agriculture." In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior . In the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau within the department or

402-568: A higher standard of proof. In 2000, similar to Pigford v. Glickman , a class-action lawsuit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia on behalf of Hispanic farmers alleging that the USDA discriminated against them in terms of credit transactions and disaster benefits, in direct violation of ECOA . As per the settlement, $ 1.33 billion is available for compensation in awards of up to $ 50,000 or $ 250,000, while an additional $ 160 million

469-512: A number of agencies, both state and federal, had financial support to perform soil survey work. The consolidation of soil survey activities (and funding) into the SCS program was a hard pill for many to swallow. United States Department of Agriculture The United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) is an executive department of the United States federal government that aims to meet

536-472: A separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. On May 15, 1862, Abraham Lincoln established the independent Department of Agriculture through the Morrill Act to be headed by a commissioner without Cabinet status. Staffed by only eight employees, the department was charged with conducting research and development related to "agriculture, rural development , aquaculture and human nutrition in

603-440: A soil classification scheme. In 1927 he published a translation of Glinka 's The Great Soil Groups of the World and their Development from German to English. His classification scheme became the 1935 system that was modified and published in the 1938 Yearbook of Agriculture, Soils and Men: the 1938 USDA soil taxonomy. At the highest level of classification the soils were divided into pedocals and pedalfers . Pedocals were used in

670-589: A trip to China . Charles Kellogg , a professor of soil science at North Dakota State University , became the new Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. He produced the Soil Survey Manual of 1937 that gave direction on the procedure for soil survey to be used by both Bureau of Chemistry and Soils and SCS soil surveys. During the Great Depression , the soil survey efforts slowed. The Bureau continued it soil survey efforts but with reduced funding. The SCS

737-584: A utilitarian legend. The symbol indicated the soil properties. These symbols and surveys continued until the 1970s. Conflict existed between the SCS and the other partners within the NCSS during the 20 years from 1933 to 1952. Marbut did not feel that soil erosion threatened the food supply of the United States and wrote that to the National Academy of Science, in direct opposition to Bennett. Marbut died in 1935 on

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804-643: A variety of forms at the hands of the USDA. The majority of these discriminatory actions have occurred through the Farm Service Agency , which oversees loan and assistance programs to farmers. In response to the Supreme Court's ruling of unconstitutionality of the Agricultural Adjustment Act , Congress enacted the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 , which established

871-620: Is Tom Vilsack , who has served since February 24, 2021. Approximately 71% of the USDA's $ 213 billion budget goes towards nutrition assistance programs administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS). The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (formerly known as the 'Food Stamp' program), which is the cornerstone of USDA's nutrition assistance. The United States Forest Service

938-561: Is available in debt relief . In 2001, similar to Garcia v. Vilsack , a class-action lawsuit was filed in the same court alleging discrimination on the basis of gender. A Congressional response to the lawsuit resulted in the passing of the Equality for Women Farmers Act , which created a system that would allow for allegations of gender discrimination to be heard against the USDA and enable claims for damages. Curtis F. Marbut Curtis Fletcher Marbut (1863–1935) served as Director of

1005-475: Is the largest agency within the department, which administers national forests and national grasslands that together comprise about 25% of federal lands . The USDA is divided into eight distinct mission areas, each of which have at least one agency dedicated to the theme of the mission area: Farm Production and Conservation (FPAC) Food, Nutrition, and Consumer Services (FNCS) Food Safety (FS) Marketing and Regulatory Programs (MRP) Natural Resources and

1072-746: The American Farm Bureau Federation . It represented the largest commercial growers before Congress. As late as the Great Depression , farm work occupied a fourth of Americans. Indeed, many young people who moved to the cities in the prosperous 1920s returned to the family farm after the depression caused unemployment after 1929. The USDA helped ensure that food continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners, and provided technical advice. Its Bureau of Home Economics , established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. On August 27, 2018,

1139-523: The Congress and local agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $ 1,000 for "the collection of agricultural statistics and other agricultural purposes." Ellsworth's interest in aiding agriculture was evident in his annual reports that called for a public depository to preserve and distribute the various new seeds and plants,

1206-532: The Department of Agriculture was reorganized. In 1952, all soil survey work by the USDA was consolidated and responsibility for Federal leadership in the National Cooperative Soil Survey partnership was given to the SCS. This included all mapping, classification, interpretation, laboratory services, map compilation and nationwide publication. The Bureau was then abolished and Kellogg became head of

1273-661: The ECOA and the APA . This case relied heavily on its predecessor, Pigford v. Glickman , in terms of the reasoning it set forth in the lawsuit. Eventually, a settlement was reached between the plaintiffs and the USDA to the amount of up to $ 760 million, awardable through individual damages claims. These claims could be used for monetary relief, debt relief, and/or tax relief. The filing period began June 29, 2011 and lasted 180 days. Track A claimants would be eligible for up to $ 50,000, whereas Track B claimants would be eligible for up to $ 250,000 with

1340-681: The House of Representatives and Senate passed separate bills giving Cabinet status to the Department of Agriculture and Labor, but the bill was defeated in conference committee after farm interests objected to the addition of labor. Finally, in 1889 the Department of Agriculture was given cabinet-level status. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the federal funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics , and other subjects to

1407-515: The National Mall between 12th Street and 14th SW, the department had offices for its staff and the entire width of the Mall up to B Street NW to plant and experiment with plants. In the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry , and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank. In 1887,

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1474-582: The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) which provided service to private landowners and encouraged subsidies that would relieve soil from excessive farming. The SCS in its early days were hesitant, especially in Southern jurisdictions, to hire Black conservationists. Rather than reaching out to Black students in universities for interviews and job opportunities, students had to reach out for the few opportunities granted to Black conservationists. As part of

1541-517: The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program , which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income and homeless people each month. USDA is a member of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness , where it is committed to working with other agencies to ensure these mainstream benefits have been accessed by those experiencing homelessness. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with

1608-475: The soil profile . This recognized soils more on natural boundaries. Previously the soil was divided into sections by 6 2 ⁄ 3  inch increments to 40 inches (1,000 mm) depth. Depths used were 0 to 7, 7 to 13, 13 to 20, 20 to 27, 27 to 34, 34 to 40 inches (1,000 mm). Forty inches was the depth of observation for a number of years, then later it was extended to 60 inches (1,500 mm) and subsequently to 2 meters. In 1920 Marbut began his work on

1675-470: The 1964 Civil Rights Act , the USDA formally ended racial segregation among its staff. In the 1999 Pigford v. Glickman class-action lawsuit brought by African American farmers, the USDA agreed to a billion-dollar settlement due to its patterns of discrimination in the granting of loans and subsidies to black farmers. In 2011, a second round of payouts, Pigford II, was appropriated by Congress for $ 1.25 billion, although this payout, far too late to support

1742-478: The 1970s when the scope of the NCSS was expanded to focus on urban lands. Of the four survey areas initiated in 1899, three were published the next year. These first surveys cost about 3/10ths of a cent per acre. As of 1999, soil surveys cost about $ 3/acre. Soil texture was the main differentiating soil characteristic used in the early survey process. Soil series were soon to follow as groupings of soil types . By 1906 Miami soil series included 16 soil types from

1809-840: The Chinese Geological Survey on organizing a soil survey. As a geologist and geographer his initial view was that soils were surface reflections of the geology below them, but came to recognize that soil science is distinct from geology. Eugene W. Hilgard of the University of California and Hopkins of the University of Illinois greatly influenced this change of view. The land-grant universities had always been close partners in National Cooperative Soil Surveys and by 1920 most soil surveyors were graduates of these universities and other agricultural colleges with training in soils and crops. In 1920 Marbut began his work on

1876-462: The Environment (NRE) Research, Education, and Economics (REE) Rural Development (RD) Trade and Foreign Agriculture Affairs (TFAA) Many of the programs concerned with the distribution of food and nutrition to people of the United States and providing nourishment as well as nutrition education to those in need are run by the Food and Nutrition Service . Activities in this program include

1943-634: The NBFA would later call the agreement incomplete because more than 70,000 were excluded. Nevertheless, the settlement was deemed to be the largest-ever civil rights class action settlement in American history. Lawyers estimated the value of the settlement to be more than $ 2 billion. Some farmers would have their debts forgiven. Judge Friedman appointed a monitor to oversee the settlement. Farmers in Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Georgia were among those affected by

2010-611: The National Cooperative Soil Survey. In 1951, the SCS developed the Land Capability System. By using factors such as flooding frequency, slope, rockiness and clay or sand content, the best use for the soil can be estimated. National Cooperative Soil Survey standards assure the soil survey data is consistent with the Land Capability Classification System. During the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration much of

2077-653: The Soil Survey Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture from 1913 until his death in 1935. Marbut developed the first formal soil classification scheme for the United States. Marbut was born and raised in Barry County, Missouri . He obtained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Missouri in 1889 and a Master of Arts degree from Harvard University in 1894. (He never sat for his final PhD exams at Harvard.) Marbut taught Physiography and Geology at

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2144-536: The USDA announced it would be providing U.S. farmers with a farm aid package totaling $ 4.7 billion in direct payments to American farmers. This package is meant to offset the losses farmers are expected to incur from retaliatory tariffs placed on American exports during the Trump tariffs . On 7 February 2022, the USDA announced the Partnerships for Climate-Smart Commodities, a $ 1 billion program that will test and verify

2211-456: The USDA filed in federal court in 1997. An attorney called it "the most organized, largest civil rights case in the history of the country." Also in 1997, black farmers from at least five states held protests in front of the USDA headquarters in Washington, D.C. Protests in front of the USDA were a strategy employed in later years as the black farmers sought to keep national attention focused on

2278-545: The USDA loan process was unfair to minority farmers, had claimed it was hard to determine the effect on such farmers. In 2006 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a report highly critical of the USDA in its handling of the black farmers cases. NBFA continued to lobby Congress to provide relief. NBFA's John Boyd (farmer) secured congressional support for legislation that would provide $ 100 million in funds to settle late-filer cases. In 2006

2345-405: The USDA soil survey program. After being assigned the responsibility of the entire soil survey program, the SCS shifted from making individual conservation plan soil surveys and land use maps to making complete county soil surveys. This reorganization did not set well with some universities and individuals that had been involved in the soil survey program up to that point. From 1899 until this time

2412-449: The USDA] to present documentary evidence that they had been unfairly treated or had even tried to farm." Lack of documentation is an issue complicated by the USDA practice of discarding denied applications after three years. In 1999, Native American farmers , discriminated in a similar fashion to black farmers, filed a class-action lawsuit against the USDA alleging loan discrimination under

2479-502: The United States. In 1829, by request of James Smithson out of a desire to further promulgate and diffuse scientific knowledge amongst the American people, the Smithsonian Institution was established, though it did not incorporate agriculture. In 1837, Henry Leavitt Ellsworth became Commissioner of Patents in the Department of State . He began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of

2546-618: The University of Missouri from 1895 until 1910, and also worked for the Missouri Geologic Survey and directed the Missouri Soil Survey. In 1910, Marbut went to work as a soil scientist in the Bureau of Soils of the U.S. Department of Agriculture , where he continued until his death in 1935. Marbut became Director of the Soil Survey Division in 1913. Marbut died of pneumonia in 1935 while en route to an assignment in China advising

2613-475: The agency's history its personnel have discriminated against farmers of various backgrounds, denying them loans and access to other programs well into the 1990s. The effect of this discrimination caused a reduction in the number of African American farmers in the United States. Though African American farmers have been the most hit by discriminatory actions by the USDA, women, Native Americans , Hispanics , and other minorities have experienced discrimination in

2680-539: The benefits of climate-friendly agricultural practices. In October 2022, the USDA announced a $ 1.3 billion debt relief program for about 36,000 farmers who had fallen behind on loan payments or facing foreclosures. The provisions in the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 set aside $ 3.1 billion to help such farmers with high-risk operations caused by USDA-backed loans. USDA's offices and agencies are listed below, with full-time equivalent staff levels according to

2747-576: The black farmers. Barack Obama , then a U.S. Senator, lent his support to the black farmers' issues in 2007. A bill co-sponsored by Obama passed the Senate in 2007. In early June 2008 hundreds of black farmers, denied a chance to have their cases heard in the Pigford settlement, filed a new lawsuit against USDA. The Senate and House versions of the black farmers bill, reopening black farmers discrimination cases, became law in June 2008. Some news reports said that

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2814-499: The drier climates and referred to the carbonate rich soils. The Pedalfers began about at the Udic border and referred to soils rich in Aluminum (Alumen) and Iron (Ferrous). Alfer became the root term for Alfisols . Following 1938, classifying soil series according to the system met with mixed success. By 1945 the development of a new system began. The first version, termed an "approximation"

2881-584: The estimated FY2023 appropriation, as reported in USDA's FY2024 Congressional Budget Justification. Secretary of Agriculture Deputy Secretary of Agriculture Under Secretary for Farm Production and Conservation Under Secretary for Rural Development Under Secretary for Food, Nutrition, and Consumer Services Under Secretary for Food Safety Under Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment Under Secretary for Marketing and Regulatory Programs Under Secretary for Research, Education, and Economics Allegations have been made that throughout

2948-431: The expertise by introducing sampling techniques. Professional economists ran a strong Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Most important was the agricultural experiment station system, a network of state partners in the land-grant colleges, which in turn operated a large field service in direct contact with farmers in practically every rural county. The department worked smoothly with a nationwide, well-organized pressure group,

3015-533: The first time. While the National Cooperative Soil Survey has involved multiple partners since its inception in 1896, Federal responsibility for coordinating partner efforts has resided within the USDA. However, soil survey responsibilities have moved several times within the USDA: The original federal authority for the soil survey of the United States is contained in the record of the 53rd Congress , chapter 169, Agricultural Appropriations Act of 1896. Milton Whitney

3082-562: The glaciated regions and Norfolk series included 12 soil types from the coastal plains . Several other characteristics were added by that time. They were soil color , organic content, soil structure , drainage, erodibility , and nature of subsoil . Soil provinces were established and soil series were confined to their area. Series at first were identified where the soils formed from the same accumulated parent material : glaciated , wind blown , alluvial etc. Geological Survey maps were generally unavailable and early soil surveyors used

3149-465: The issues and concerns for their area, usually a county, with the SCS providing requested technical assistance. by the 1940s, most states had passed laws to form Soil Conservation Districts. In some states, like Indiana , Conservation Districts became dissatisfied with Federal technical involvement and SCS was excluded from the state. Consistent with this, states like Indiana directed their own cooperative soil survey efforts. In some states like Missouri ,

3216-641: The legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation . The standard history is Gladys L. Baker, ed., Century of Service: The first 100 years of the United States Department of Agriculture (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1963). Early in its history, the American economy was largely agrarian . Officials in the federal government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants and animals for import into

3283-539: The many who desperately needed financial assistance during 1999 lawsuit, only comes out to around $ 250,000 per farmer. A March 17, 2006 letter from the GAO about the Pigford Settlement indicated that "the court noted that USDA disbanded its Office of Civil Rights in 1983, and stopped responding to claims of discrimination." Following long-standing concerns, black farmers joined a class action discrimination suit against

3350-505: The most general and comprehensive sense of those terms". Agriculturalist Isaac Newton was appointed to be the first commissioner. Lincoln called it the "people's department", since over half of the nation, at the time, was directly or indirectly involved in agriculture or agribusiness . In 1868, the department moved into the new Department of Agriculture Building in Washington, designed by famed D.C. architect Adolf Cluss . Located on

3417-455: The nation's soil resources. It seeks to inventory soil resources as a basis for determining land capabilities and needed conservation treatments, to provide soil information to the public (primarily through maps), and to provide technical support to those who use soil information. More than 90% of private lands have been mapped. In FY2001, maps were prepared or updated on 21,900,000 acres (89,000 km), including 25 counties or areas for

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3484-436: The needs of commercial farming and livestock food production, promotes agricultural trade and production, works to assure food safety , protects natural resources, fosters rural communities and works to end hunger in the United States and internationally. It is headed by the secretary of agriculture , who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the president's Cabinet . The current secretary

3551-487: The new law could affect up to 74,000 black farmers. In October 2008, the GAO issued a report criticizing the USDA's handling of discrimination complaints. The GAO recommended an oversight review board to examine civil rights complaints. After numerous public rallies and an intensive NBFA member lobbying effort, Congress approved and Obama signed into law in December 2010 legislation that set aside $ 1.15 billion to resolve

3618-504: The newly formed districts, relying on SCS technical assistance, ignored scientific data and input from the universities, which responded by opposing the formation of additional districts. This was resolved by the expansion of the Cooperative Extension Service . It is now typical for all counties have a Conservation District, and a University Extension agent. Both Conservation Districts and Cooperative Extension are partners in

3685-545: The outstanding black farmers' cases. NBFA's John W. Boyd Jr., attended the bill-signing ceremony at the White House. As of 2013, 90,000 African-American, Hispanic, female and Native American farmers had filed claims. It was reported that some had been found fraudulent, or transparently bogus. In Maple Hill , North Carolina by 2013, the number of successful claimants was four times the number of farms with 1 out of 9 African-Americans being paid, while "claimants were not required [by

3752-508: The plane table and alidade to develop their own base maps. Work for soil surveys was done at a mapping scale 1 inch to the mile. Scale as of 1999 is pretty well standardized at 1:12000 or 1:24000. Six different scales have been used in published soil surveys. In 1913 Curtis F. Marbut was appointed Scientist in Charge of the Soil Survey, the position he held almost until his death. Marbut

3819-624: The plight of the black farmers. Representatives of the National Black Farmers Association met with President Bill Clinton and other administration officials at the White House . And NBFA's president testified before the United States House Committee on Agriculture . In Pigford v. Glickman , U.S. Federal District Court Judge Paul L. Friedman approved the settlement and consent decree on April 14, 1999. The settlement recognized discrimination against 22,363 black farmers, but

3886-480: The public. With these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. By the year 1933, the department was well established in Washington and very well known in rural America. In the agricultural field the picture was different. Statisticians created a comprehensive data-gathering arm in the Division of Crop and Livestock Estimates. Secretary Henry Wallace, a statistician, further strengthened

3953-442: The sale of crops and food on both the domestic and world markets. It plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID , foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program , or approved nonprofits. The Agricultural Act of 1949 , section 416 (b) and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 , also known as Food for Peace , provides

4020-493: The settlement. The NBFA's president was invited to testify before congress on this matter numerous times following the settlement, including before the United States Senate Committee on Agriculture on September 12, 2000, when he testified that many farmers had not yet received payments and others were left out of the settlement. It was later revealed that one DoJ staff "general attorney" was unlicensed while she

4087-728: The surveys were geologists or chemists; none had training in agronomy. On May 3, 1899, with an appropriation of $ 16,000 Whitney began field operations. In four separate soil surveys about 720,000 acres (2,900 km) were mapped that first year. Cecil County, Maryland , and Connecticut Valley, Connecticut , concentrated on tobacco lands. Survey of the Salt Lake Valley of Utah and the Pecos River Valley of New Mexico concentrated on alkali soil areas where irrigation and land reclamation projects were planned. Soil surveys focused on cropland or interpretations for cropland until

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4154-491: The very start were close partners in National Cooperative Soil Survey. By 1920, most soil surveyors were graduates of land-grant universities and other agricultural colleges with training in soils and crops. The recognition of soil science as a distinct discipline was also influenced by the Russian school of soil science and K.D. Glinka (1867–1927) in particular. These soil scientists characterized soils based on soil horizons of

4221-451: Was Professor of Geology and Physiography at the University of Missouri from 1895 until 1910. As a geologist and geographer his initial view was that soils were surface reflections of the geology below them. Marbut changed to recognize soil science as distinct from geology . Eugene W. Hilgard of the University of California and Hopkins of the University of Illinois greatly influenced this change. The land-grant universities from

4288-421: Was handling black farmers' cases. NBFA called for all those cases to be reheard. The Chicago Tribune reported in 2004 that the result of such longstanding USDA discrimination was that black farmers had been forced out of business at a rate three times faster than white farmers. In 1920, 1 in 7 U.S. farmers was African-American, and by 2004 the number was 1 in 100. USDA spokesman Ed Loyd, when acknowledging that

4355-638: Was put in charge of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) involving a massive workforce to build terraces and other demonstrations on agricultural lands. As a result, highly specialized studies, such as soil surveys, were limited. In 1942, the CCC was disbanded and SCS revived its soil survey efforts Hugh Bennett promoted local interest and input in soil conservation. To achieve this, Bennett pushed for soil districts in each state. Each district board, made up of elected local landowners and farmers, determines

4422-431: Was tested by the 1948. A series of approximations followed and the 7th approximation came out in 1960. The supplement to the 7th approximation was approved for use in 1965. USDA soil taxonomy , with 10 soil orders came out in 1975. It was revised into the 2nd edition with 12 soil orders in 1999. In 1933 Franklin D. Roosevelt created the Soil Erosion Service under the Department of the Interior. Hugh Hammond Bennett, after

4489-461: Was the first Chief of the Division of Agricultural Soil. The division was created under the USDA Weather Bureau in 1894, but, with the inception of National Cooperative Soil Survey efforts, became the Division of Soils as an independent division within the Department of Agriculture. The early vision of soil survey was a survey that combined geography with soil chemistry . The men conducting

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