141-635: Business rates in England , or non-domestic rates , are a tax on the occupation of non-domestic property ( National Non-Domestic Rates ; NNDR ). Rates are a property tax with ancient roots that was formerly used to fund local services that was formalised with the Vagabonds Act 1572 and superseded by the Poor Relief Act 1601 . The Local Government Finance Act 1988 introduced business rates in England and Wales from 1990, repealing its immediate predecessor,
282-431: A flat percentage rate of taxation on personal annual income, but most scale taxes are progressive based on brackets of yearly income amounts. Most countries charge a tax on an individual's income and corporate income . Countries or sub-units often also impose wealth taxes , inheritance taxes , gift taxes , property taxes , sales taxes , use taxes , environmental taxes , payroll taxes , duties , or tariffs . It
423-417: A green paper in 1981 under the title Alternatives to Domestic Rates . It considered a flat-rate per-capita tax as a supplement to another tax, noting that a large flat-rate tax would be seen as unfair. The 1980s saw a period of general confrontation between central government and Labour-controlled local authorities over levels of expenditure (known as the " rate-capping rebellion "), which eventually led to
564-433: A pay-as-you-earn basis, with corrections made after the end of the tax year . These corrections take one of two forms: Income-tax systems often make deductions available that reduce the total tax liability by reducing total taxable income. They may allow losses from one type of income to count against another – for example, a loss on the stock market may be deducted against taxes paid on wages. Other tax systems may isolate
705-474: A UK government executive agency . Rating lists can be altered either to reflect changes in properties, or as valuations are appealed against. New rating lists are normally created every three years. The most recent rating list was published in 2023. In financial year 2014–15, authorities collected a total of £22.9 billion in business rates, representing 3.53% of the total UK tax income and achieving an average in-year collection rate of 98.1%. On 1 April 2013
846-426: A certain area ( social engineering ). For example, a high excise is used to discourage alcohol consumption, relative to other goods. This may be combined with hypothecation if the proceeds are then used to pay for the costs of treating illness caused by alcohol use disorder . Similar taxes may exist on tobacco , pornography , marijuana etc., and they may be collectively referred to as " sin taxes ". A carbon tax
987-422: A combination of compulsory and discretionary reliefs exist in England. The Welsh scheme was incorporated into small business rates relief from 1 April 2007. Properties of a given rateable value (£7,000 in England from 2005) can receive the relief if they are in a rural settlement (defined as a population of 3,000 or less, within designated rural areas), and are the only general store or post office, or food store in
1128-446: A commodity is sold to its final consumer. Retail organizations contend that such taxes discourage retail sales. The question of whether they are generally progressive or regressive is a subject of much current debate. People with higher incomes spend a lower proportion of them, so a flat-rate sales tax will tend to be regressive. It is therefore common to exempt food, utilities, and other necessities from sales taxes, since poor people spend
1269-534: A community amateur sports club). Being a registered charity is conclusive proof of charitable status, but is not the only method to establish it. Simply being owned by a charity will not, however, be sufficient to qualify for the reliefs. The property must also be used wholly or mainly for charitable purposes, and the criteria set out in the Local Government Finance Act 1988 must also be met. The criteria for eligibility are not straightforward and there
1410-594: A crosshair and seemingly-abstract images on them. Upon closer inspection, those images read "no poll tax". After the poll tax was announced, opinion polls showed the Labour opposition opening a strong lead over the Conservative government. Following the Poll Tax Riots, Conservative ministers contemplated abolition of the tax but knew that, as a flagship Thatcherite policy, its abolition would not be possible while Thatcher
1551-577: A decade in office. All three of the contenders to succeed her pledged to abandon the tax. The successful candidate, John Major , appointed Heseltine to the post of Environment Secretary, responsible for replacing the poll tax. In early 1991 the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Norman Lamont , announced a rise in Value Added Tax from 15 to 17.5 per cent to pay for a £140 reduction in the tax. The abolition of
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#17331056235301692-469: A definition and system of classification of internal taxes, generally followed below. In addition, many countries impose taxes ( tariffs ) on the import of goods. Many jurisdictions tax the income of individuals and of business entities , including corporations . Generally, the authorities impose a tax on net profits from a business , on net gains, and on other income. Computation of income subject to tax may be determined under accounting principles used in
1833-479: A different Uniform Business rate multiplier, and different reliefs. For each property in the rating list for their area, the local authority calculates and issues a bill, which it is responsible for collecting, with powers to pursue payment. The rateable value is multiplied by the Uniform Business Rate, referred to in legislation as the non-domestic rating multiplier, to arrive at an annual bill. For example,
1974-479: A fixed rate was widely criticised as being unfair, and needlessly burdensome on those less well-off. Mass protests were co-ordinated by the All Britain Anti-Poll Tax Federation , other national networks such as 3D (Don't Register, Don't Pay, Don't Collect) and by hundreds of local Anti-Poll Tax Unions (APTUs), which were not aligned to any particular political grouping. In Scotland, where the tax
2115-492: A fresh administrative framework for assessing and billing but did not redefine the legal unit of property, the hereditament , that had been developed through rating case law . Properties are assessed in a rating list with a rateable value, a valuation of their annual rental value on a fixed valuation date using assumptions fixed by statute . Rating lists are created and maintained by the Valuation Office Agency ,
2256-417: A general rule be treated as a separate hereditament for rating purposes: and this is the case even though they are used by the occupier for the purposes of his one whole business. The principle Denning stated shows that if a business occupies a single property, that is the hereditament. If it occupies only the ground floor, that is the hereditament (and the first floor is a separate hereditament). If it occupies
2397-406: A higher proportion of their incomes on these commodities, so such exemptions make the tax more progressive. This is the classic "You pay for what you spend" tax, as only those who spend money on non-exempt (i.e. luxury) items pay the tax. A small number of U.S. states rely entirely on sales taxes for state revenue, as those states do not levy a state income tax. Such states tend to have a moderate to
2538-638: A higher tax rate. Historically, in many countries, a contract needs to have a stamp affixed to make it valid. The charge for the stamp is either a fixed amount or a percentage of the value of the transaction. In most countries, the stamp has been abolished but stamp duty remains. Stamp duty is levied in the UK on the purchase of shares and securities, the issue of bearer instruments, and certain partnership transactions. Its modern derivatives, stamp duty reserve tax and stamp duty land tax , are respectively charged on transactions involving securities and land. Stamp duty has
2679-497: A large amount of tourism or inter-state travel that occurs within their borders, allowing the state to benefit from taxes from people the state would otherwise not tax. In this way, the state is able to reduce the tax burden on its citizens. The U.S. states that do not levy a state income tax are Alaska, Tennessee, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washington state, and Wyoming. Additionally, New Hampshire and Tennessee levy state income taxes only on dividends and interest income. Of
2820-542: A new system of business rates retention began in England. Before April 2013 all business rate income collected by councils formed a single, national pot, which was then distributed by government in the form of formula grant. Through the Local Government Finance Act 2012 , and regulations that followed, the government gave local authorities the power to keep up to half of business rate income and transfer half of it centrally, to central government. The central share
2961-507: A non-payment campaign. In July 1991, Terry Fields , Labour Member of Parliament (MP) for Liverpool Broadgreen , and a member of the Militant tendency , was imprisoned for sixty days for refusing to pay. At the time of Fields' jailing, Labour leader Neil Kinnock commented: "Law makers must not be law breakers." In popular culture, the punk band The Exploited featured the song "Don't Pay The Poll Tax" in their album The Massacre , which
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#17331056235303102-553: A particular amount. Such upper or lower limits may apply for retirement but not for health-care components of the tax. Some have argued that such taxes on wages are a form of "forced savings" and not really a tax, while others point to redistribution through such systems between generations (from newer cohorts to older cohorts) and across income levels (from higher income levels to lower income-levels) which suggests that such programs are really taxed and spending programs. Unemployment and similar taxes are often imposed on employers based on
3243-437: A property will be the day the extension is completed. Previously the material day for an extension had been the day on which the list was altered. There are a number of different categories of events which cause the list to be altered (such as a new entry to the list, or the merger of properties), each of which has a specified material day. Most commonly the material day is the day the event occurred. The antecedent valuation date
3384-496: A rateable value based on rental values. Rating lists were prepared and maintained by the Valuation Office (reconstituted in 1991 as a UK Government executive agency , the Valuation Office Agency ), while billing and collection was the responsibility of local authorities. Previously, local authorities had decided what proportion of rateable values to charge; the new system featured a centrally set multiplier, often referred to as
3525-407: A rateable value below £2,000, and 25% relief for rateable values between £2,000 and £5,000. Post offices with rateable values of up to £9,000 are eligible for 100% relief; while those over £9,000 and up to £12,000 receive 50%. It also authorises local authorities to set up local schemes of relief for properties up to a limit of £12,000 rateable value. On revaluation, the multiplier is adjusted so that
3666-586: A rateable value of £10,000 and a multiplier of 40p would produce an annual bill of £4,000. The bill usually requires payment in instalments over the financial year. The multiplier is set by central government, and is uniform. Power to set the multiplier in Wales has been devolved to the National Assembly for Wales . A special case exists where a defined special authority can set its own multiplier within centrally defined limits. The only currently qualifying authority
3807-418: A rental valuation of the property. Some types of property, such as public utilities, are valued using a statutory formula instead. The task of compiling and maintaining the list is given to the valuation officer for each authority, who is a civil servant of the Valuation Office Agency , an Executive Agency of HM Revenue & Customs . Rateable value is an estimate of the annual rent that would be paid for
3948-625: A result of market forces . Certain countries (usually small in size or population, which results in a smaller infrastructure and social expenditure) function as tax havens by imposing minimal taxes on the personal income of individuals and corporate income. These tax havens attract capital from abroad (particularly from larger economies) while resulting in loss of tax revenues within other non-haven countries (through base erosion and profit shifting ). Legal and economic definitions of taxes differ, such that many transfers to governments are not considered taxes by economists. For example, some transfers to
4089-511: A single-rate form of taxation regardless of ability to pay (the Community Charge , but more popularly referred to as the Poll Tax), led to widespread refusal to pay and to incidents of civil unrest, known colloquially as the ' Poll Tax Riots '. Some types of taxes have been proposed but not actually adopted in any major jurisdiction. These include: An ad valorem tax is one where the tax base
4230-436: A sliding scale from 50% at £6,000 to 0% at £12,000), where the ratepayer has: Where there are additional properties, only the main property will have the relief applied. The relief must be actively applied for by completion of a form available from each local council. A bill to make the application of the relief mandatory was not passed into legislation although it would have led to a greater take-up of this assistance. To fund
4371-549: A small business). Transitional relief schemes have been applied to the 1990, 1995, and 2000 rating lists in England and Wales, and to the 2005 rating list in England. Starting on 1 April 1990, a rating list for each local authority was compiled. Although there is technically a separate list for each authority, it is common to refer to the aggregate of the lists as, for example, the 1990 Rating List. Rating lists are maintained during their lifetime to reflect changes in properties; new lists were formerly compiled every five years, although
Business rates in England - Misplaced Pages Continue
4512-541: A stricter definition of how to value for a rate; the introduction of a valuation list containing the assessed values; the ability to object to the assessed value; and the introduction of the valuation officer, appointed by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue (now HM Revenue & Customs ), as the assessor. The immediate predecessor to business rates was the general rate, established by the General Rate Act 1967 . This
4653-490: A supplement to the UBR to fund the relief. The income from business rates currently does not go directly to the local authority (unlike Council Tax ); rather, it is pooled centrally and redistributed to the authorities. In financial year 2014–15, authorities in England collected a total of £22.9 billion in business rates, representing 3.53% of the total UK tax income and achieving an average in-year collection rate of 98.1%. For 2016/17
4794-437: A tax on net worth (assets minus liabilities), as a percentage of the net worth, or a percentage of the net worth exceeding a certain level. The tax may be levied on " natural " or " legal persons. " A value-added tax (VAT), also known as Goods and Services Tax (GST), Single Business Tax, or Turnover Tax in some countries, applies the equivalent of a sales tax to every operation that creates value. To give an example, sheet steel
4935-403: A unit of such property which is, or would fall to be, shown as a separate item in the valuation list. This itself does not directly provide a definition, but depends on the case law already established by prior forms of rating; no statutory definition of the hereditament exists. In case law, the concept of the hereditament is inextricably linked to that of rateable occupation. Rateable occupation
5076-493: Is a per unit tax, where the tax base is the quantity of something, regardless of its price. An excise tax is an example. Consumption tax refers to any tax on non-investment spending and can be implemented by means of a sales tax, consumer value-added tax, or by modifying an income tax to allow for unlimited deductions for investment or savings. This includes natural resources consumption tax , greenhouse gas tax (i.e. carbon tax ), "sulfuric tax", and others. The stated purpose
5217-430: Is a distinction between an estate tax and an inheritance tax: the former taxes the personal representatives of the deceased, while the latter taxes the beneficiaries of the estate. However, this distinction does not apply in other jurisdictions; for example, if using this terminology UK inheritance tax would be an estate tax. An expatriation tax is a tax on individuals who renounce their citizenship or residence. The tax
5358-590: Is a full VAT. The province of Quebec collects the Quebec Sales Tax [QST] which is based on the GST with certain differences. Most businesses can claim back the GST, HST, and QST they pay, and so effectively it is the final consumer who pays the tax. An excise duty is an indirect tax imposed upon goods during the process of their manufacture, production or distribution, and is usually proportionate to their quantity or value. Excise duties were first introduced into England in
5499-442: Is a general tax levied periodically on residents who own personal property (personalty) within the jurisdiction. Vehicle and boat registration fees are subsets of this kind of tax. The tax is often designed with blanket coverage and large exceptions for things like food and clothing. Household goods are often exempt when kept or used within the household. Any otherwise non-exempt object can lose its exemption if regularly kept outside
5640-589: Is a tax on the consumption of carbon-based non-renewable fuels, such as petrol, diesel-fuel, jet fuels, and natural gas. The object is to reduce the release of carbon into the atmosphere. In the United Kingdom, vehicle excise duty is an annual tax on vehicle ownership. An import or export tariff (also called customs duty or impost) is a charge for the movement of goods through a political border. Tariffs discourage trade , and they may be used by governments to protect domestic industries. A proportion of tariff revenues
5781-426: Is also possible to levy a tax on tax, as with a gross receipts tax . In economic terms ( circular flow of income ), taxation transfers wealth from households or businesses to the government. This affects economic growth and welfare , which can be increased (known as fiscal multiplier ) or decreased (known as excess burden of taxation ). Consequently, taxation is a highly debated topic by some, as although taxation
Business rates in England - Misplaced Pages Continue
5922-440: Is an ad valorem tax levy on the value of a property that the owner of the property is required to pay to a government in which the property is situated. Multiple jurisdictions may tax the same property. There are three general varieties of property: land, improvements to land (immovable human-made things, e.g. buildings), and personal property (movable things). Real estate or realty is the combination of land and improvements to
6063-525: Is being agreed, where the tenant pays all repairs and insurance, and that the property "is in a state of reasonable repair". It appears that it was the intention of the drafters of the Local Government Finance Act 1988 that the previous assumption of 'reasonable repair' would continue in the new system. However, a successful legal challenge at the Lands Tribunal ( Benjamin (VO) v Anston Properties Ltd [1998]) showed that they had in fact failed to include it in
6204-456: Is by the local authority, or "billing authority") may vary from place to place. In brief, the reliefs are a mandatory 80% relief on occupied properties, for which the charity must actively apply. An additional discretionary relief, of up to 20%, can also be applied for. The zero rating relief for unoccupied properties will apply where a property is unoccupied but will, when next occupied, be used wholly or mainly for charitable purposes (or those of
6345-484: Is considered the most viable option to operate the government (instead of widespread state ownership of the means of production ), as taxation enables the government to generate revenue without heavily interfering with the market and private businesses; taxation preserves the efficiency and productivity of the private sector by allowing individuals and companies to make their own economic decisions, engage in flexible production , competition , and innovation as
6486-433: Is deemed necessary by consensus for society to function and grow in an orderly and equitable manner through the government provision of public goods and public services , others such as libertarians and anarcho-capitalists are anti-taxation and denounce taxation broadly or in its entirety, classifying taxation as theft or extortion through coercion along with the use of force . Within market economies, taxation
6627-464: Is economically justified, as it will not deter production, distort market mechanisms or otherwise create deadweight losses the way other taxes do. When real estate is held by a higher government unit or some other entity not subject to taxation by the local government, the taxing authority may receive a payment in lieu of taxes to compensate it for some or all of the foregone tax revenues. In many jurisdictions (including many American states), there
6768-495: Is generally a gain on sale of capital assets—that is, those assets not held for sale in the ordinary course of business. Capital assets include personal assets in many jurisdictions. Some jurisdictions provide preferential rates of tax or only partial taxation for capital gains. Some jurisdictions impose different rates or levels of capital-gains taxation based on the length of time the asset was held. Because tax rates are often much lower for capital gains than for ordinary income, there
6909-465: Is imported by a machine manufacturer. That manufacturer will pay the VAT on the purchase price, remitting that amount to the government. The manufacturer will then transform the steel into a machine, selling the machine for a higher price to a wholesale distributor. The manufacturer will collect the VAT on the higher price but will remit to the government only the excess related to the "value-added" (the price over
7050-537: Is named FairTax . In Canada, the federal sales tax is called the Goods and Services Tax (GST) and now stands at 5%. The provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island also have a provincial sales tax [PST]. The provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland & Labrador, and Ontario have harmonized their provincial sales taxes with the GST—Harmonized Sales Tax [HST], and thus
7191-480: Is occupying a hereditament so as to be liable to pay a rate. In the case of LCC v Wilkins (VO) [1957], the court brought together various prior cases to establish four essentials for rateable occupation: The relationship between rateable occupation and the hereditament can be a complex one – taking rateable occupation of part of a hereditament creates a new hereditament out of the larger one, for example. In practice, determination of rateable occupation and hereditament
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#17331056235307332-528: Is often hypothecated to pay the government to maintain a navy or border police. The classic ways of cheating a tariff are smuggling or declaring a false value of goods. Tax, tariff and trade rules in modern times are usually set together because of their common impact on industrial policy , investment policy , and agricultural policy . A trade bloc is a group of allied countries agreeing to minimize or eliminate tariffs against trade with each other, and possibly to impose protective tariffs on imports from outside
7473-526: Is often imposed based on a deemed disposition of all the individual's property. One example is the United States under the American Jobs Creation Act , where any individual who has a net worth of $ 2 million or an average income-tax liability of $ 127,000 who renounces his or her citizenship and leaves the country is automatically assumed to have done so for tax avoidance reasons and is subject to
7614-414: Is often interlinked. In the leading case of Gilbert (Valuation Officer) v Hickinbottom & Sons Ltd [1956], Lord Denning said: The case therefore raises the important question: What is a separate hereditament for rating purposes? The statutes contain no definition, but the practice, which has prevailed for many years past, warrants the following general rules Where two or more properties are within
7755-435: Is some case law, especially in relation to charity shops, which provides guidance. Charities and amateur sports clubs may also apply for a similar, but discretionary, relief. Charities are only eligible if they use the property for charitable purposes, while sports clubs must be registered as such with HMRC. As of 1 April 2008, empty relief was altered, removing the previous total relief for industrial properties, and removing
7896-486: Is sometimes called a net wealth tax . Recurrent property taxes may be imposed on immovable property (real property) and on some classes of movable property. In addition, recurrent taxes may be imposed on the net wealth of individuals or corporations. Many jurisdictions impose inheritance tax on property at time of inheritance or gift tax at the time of gift transfer. Some jurisdictions impose taxes on financial or capital transactions . A property tax (or millage tax)
8037-641: Is the City of London . The multiplier is increased annually, in April. The increase is capped at the same proportion as the increase in the Retail Prices Index for the month of September the preceding year. When re-valuations take place, the multiplier is adjusted so that the overall change across the country is the same as the Retail Prices Index change. The introduction of Small Business Rate Relief in 2005 added
8178-458: Is the day from which all other matters (effectively those to do with economic conditions) are determined. In the legislation it may be either the day of compilation, or a prior date set by the government. In practice, it has always been set at two years prior to the start of the list, so that for the 2005 rating list it is 1 April 2003. Hereditament is a legal term for a unit of property, which often appears to be synonymous with simply "property", in
8319-439: Is the value of a good, service, or property. Sales taxes, tariffs, property taxes, inheritance taxes, and value-added taxes are different types of ad valorem tax. An ad valorem tax is typically imposed at the time of a transaction (sales tax or value-added tax (VAT)) but it may be imposed on an annual basis (property tax) or in connection with another significant event (inheritance tax or tariffs). In contrast to ad valorem taxation
8460-477: Is then distributed to councils in the form of revenue support grants. The other half kept by local authorities are then subjected to tariff, levy, top-up and safety payments depending on the financial position of the council. According to the government the change gives financial incentives to councils to grow their local economies and increase their income from business rates. At the same time the new scheme has resulted in more risk and uncertainty. Business rates are
8601-399: Is to reduce the environmental impact by repricing . Economists describe environmental impacts as negative externalities . As early as 1920, Arthur Pigou suggested a tax to deal with externalities (see also the section on Increased economic welfare below). The proper implementation of environmental taxes has been the subject of a long-lasting debate. An important feature of tax systems is
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#17331056235308742-412: Is widespread controversy and dispute about the proper definition of capital. Corporate tax refers to income tax, capital tax, net-worth tax, or other taxes imposed on corporations. Rates of tax and the taxable base for corporations may differ from those for individuals or for other taxable persons. Many countries provide publicly funded retirement or healthcare systems. In connection with these systems,
8883-519: The Confederation of British Industry calling for a lower multiplier and a relief scheme more to the benefit of its members. In 2007, the Lyons Inquiry into Local Government said there was no significant opposition to the principles of the tax, but that the level was a concern to property-intensive businesses. Due to the overall yield being linked to the Retail Prices Index as a measure of inflation,
9024-526: The Council Tax from the start of the 1993/1994 financial year. The VAT rate of 17.5 per cent remained despite an earlier policy of charging a higher poll tax. Council Tax strongly resembled the rates system of tax that had been in effect prior to the poll tax. The main differences (at the Council Tax's inception) were that properties were placed in bands based on a range of property values, thereby capping
9165-561: The General Rate Act 1967 . The act also introduced business rates in Scotland but as an amendment to the existing system, which had evolved separately to that in the rest of Great Britain. Since the establishment in 1997 of a Welsh Assembly able to pass legislation , the English and Welsh systems have been able to diverge. In 2015, business rates for Wales were devolved. The Local Government Finance Act 1988, with follow-up legislation, provided
9306-475: The Non-Domestic Rating Act 2023 subsequently shortened this period to three years, beginning in 2023. As well as local lists, there are a small number of central rating lists, used to assess properties that would otherwise span multiple lists, such as railway or telephone networks. A rating list is required to identify each relevant non-domestic property in the area, and assign a rateable value, based on
9447-513: The Scottish system differed, as did the administrative scheme. The Local Government Finance Act 1988 renamed the Scottish rates, and imposed the centrally set multiplier, but did not otherwise disturb the Scottish rating legislation. During the introduction of business rates, criticism focused on the level of the multiplier to be chosen, and on the transitional relief scheme, with organisations such as
9588-472: The customs house , and revenue derived from that source is called excise revenue proper. The fundamental conception of the term is that of a tax on articles produced or manufactured in a country. In the taxation of such articles of luxury as spirits , beer, tobacco, and cigars, it has been the practice to place a certain duty on the importation of these articles (a customs duty ). Excises (or exemptions from them) are also used to modify consumption patterns of
9729-402: The elderly , unemployment benefits , transfer payments , subsidies and public transportation . Energy , water and waste management systems are also common public utilities . According to the proponents of the chartalist theory of money creation , taxes are not needed for government revenue, as long as the government in question is able to issue fiat money . According to this view,
9870-582: The rating system of taxes (based on the notional rental value of a house) to fund local government had been unveiled by Margaret Thatcher when she was Shadow Environment Secretary in 1974, and was included in the manifesto of the Conservative Party in the October 1974 general election . In the 1979 elections the Conservative manifesto stated that lowering income tax took priority. The Government published
10011-478: The "poll tax" as this is a general term referring to a tax charged at an equal amount per head (also known as a head-tax), but also as a reference to historical unpopular head-taxes, in particular the English Poll Tax of 1379 . This proposal was contained in the Conservative manifesto for the 1987 General Election . The legislation introducing the poll tax was passed in 1987, 1988, and the new tax replaced
10152-436: The "poll tax", replaced the rating of domestic property. It was itself later replaced by Council Tax . The remaining non-domestic properties were to be covered by a modernised version of the general rate. The new non-domestic rating system became known as business rates, or sometimes the universal business rate. It retained from its predecessors the concept of a series of local rating lists, with each property being assessed for
10293-402: The 2005 rating list. Transitional relief applied only to changes in liability between rating lists, not changes within lists. For example, under the 2005 transitional relief scheme in England, if a rateable value had risen by 20%, the rise in liability would be restricted to 12.5% in the first year, 17.5% in the second year, and the full 20% in the third year (different restrictions would apply for
10434-559: The 50% relief for other properties. The three-month period of total relief for non-industrial properties was retained, and a six-month period instituted for industrial properties. As before, some properties retained 100% empty relief; these included all properties below a certain rateable value (£2,200 from 2005), and listed buildings . In the Pre-Budget Report 2008, the Chancellor increased the rateable value for full relief to £15,000 for
10575-473: The Antecedent Valuation Date. The valuation is based on a hypothetical lease laid down in the valuation assumptions. The Secretary of State may make regulations for certain classes of property that give a statutory formula for the rateable value, instead of the rental value. These classes include large ports and public utilities . The valuation assumes that a year-to-year (that is, ongoing) lease
10716-546: The Uniform Business Rate, by which the basic bill was calculated. The bill could be further modified by various reliefs, including the newly introduced transitional relief, which was designed to smooth large changes in liability due to revaluations. The multiplier was calculated to ensure that, on average, bills rose by no more than the rate of inflation. A system of rating had also evolved in Scotland , through separate legislation. While in many ways similar, key underlying concepts in
10857-542: The abolition of the Greater London Council and the six metropolitan county councils. The commitment to abolish the rates was replaced in the 1983 general election manifesto with a commitment to introduce the ability for central government to cap rates which it saw as excessive. This was introduced by the Rates Act 1984 . Although the rates system was supposed to have regular revaluations to minimise discrepancies,
10998-545: The above states, only Alaska and New Hampshire do not levy a state sales tax. Additional information can be obtained at the Federation of Tax Administrators website. In the United States, there is a growing movement for the replacement of all federal payroll and income taxes (both corporate and personal) with a national retail sales tax and monthly tax rebate to households of citizens and legal resident aliens. The tax proposal
11139-485: The arts , public works , distribution , data collection and dissemination , public insurance , and the operation of government itself. A government's ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity . When expenditures exceed tax revenue , a government accumulates government debt . A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts. Governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services . These services can include education systems , pensions for
11280-412: The bloc. A customs union has a common external tariff , and the participating countries share the revenues from tariffs on goods entering the customs union. In some societies, tariffs also could be imposed by local authorities on the movement of goods between regions (or via specific internal gateways). A notable example is the likin , which became an important revenue source for local governments in
11421-407: The bricks and mortar sense of the word. The concept of hereditament in rating law has developed along with that of rateable occupation through case law, as no single statute has defined it adequately. The Local Government Finance Act 1988 specifically retained the definition of hereditament from the General Rate Act 1967 : "hereditament" means property which is or may become liable to a rate, being
11562-532: The contribution of business rates to local government finance has decreased compared to Council Tax and government grants. Many local authorities have called for the rate to be increased, and for the power to set the multiplier to be returned to local control; both suggestions have been opposed by business organisations such as the British Retail Consortium . The Lyons Inquiry rejected the return to local control, and instead proposed giving local authorities
11703-404: The cost of the sheet steel). The wholesale distributor will then continue the process, charging the retail distributor the VAT on the entire price to the retailer, but remitting only the amount related to the distribution mark-up to the government. The last VAT amount is paid by the eventual retail customer who cannot recover any of the previously paid VAT. For a VAT and sales tax of identical rates,
11844-407: The country typically requires employers or employees to make compulsory payments. These payments are often computed by reference to wages or earnings from self-employment. Tax rates are generally fixed, but a different rate may be imposed on employers than on employees. Some systems provide an upper limit on earnings subject to the tax. A few systems provide that the tax is payable only on wages above
11985-494: The courts by contesting local council attempts to gain liability orders, and ultimately, not to attend court hearings arising from their non-compliance. In November 1990, South Yorkshire Police said they were planning to refuse to arrest poll tax defaulters, even when instructed to by the courts, because it would be "physically impossible for the police because of the large number of defaulters". The opposition Labour Party, at its 1988 annual conference, decided against support for
12126-422: The effect of discouraging speculative purchases of assets by decreasing liquidity. In the United States , transfer tax is often charged by the state or local government and (in the case of real property transfers) can be tied to the recording of the deed or other transfer documents. Some countries' governments will require a declaration of the taxpayers' balance sheet (assets and liabilities), and from that exact
12267-402: The electoral register to evade collection attempts, possibly because of the false impression that the words "poll tax" created. This may have affected the results of the 1992 general election , which ended in a fourth successive Conservative victory, despite most opinion polls pointing to a hung parliament or narrow Labour majority. The change from payment based on the worth of one's house to
12408-460: The estates of the deceased. In contrast with a tax on real estate (land and buildings), a land-value tax (or LVT) is levied only on the unimproved value of the land ("land" in this instance may mean either the economic term, i.e., all-natural resources, or the natural resources associated with specific areas of the Earth's surface: "lots" or "land parcels"). Proponents of the land-value tax argue that it
12549-756: The government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics . Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in the United States , His Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC) in the United Kingdom , the Canada Revenue Agency or the Australian Taxation Office . When taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties (such as fines or forfeiture ) or criminal penalties (such as incarceration ) on
12690-409: The hereditament. Tax A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity ) by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities . Tax compliance refers to policy actions and individual behavior aimed at ensuring that taxpayers are paying
12831-506: The household. Thus, tax collectors often monitor newspaper articles for stories about wealthy people who have lent art to museums for public display, because the artworks have then become subject to personal property tax. If an artwork had to be sent to another state for some touch-ups, it may have become subject to personal property tax in that state as well. Inheritance tax, also called estate tax, are taxes that arise for inheritance or inherited income. In United States tax law , there
12972-444: The individual characteristics of the taxpayer, whereas indirect taxes are levied on transactions irrespective of the circumstances of buyer or seller." According to this definition, for example, income tax is "direct", and sales tax is "indirect". Poll tax (Great Britain) The Community Charge , commonly known as the poll tax , was a system of local taxation introduced by Margaret Thatcher 's government whereby each taxpayer
13113-512: The jurisdiction, which tax-law principles in the jurisdiction may modify or replace. The incidence of taxation varies by system, and some systems may be viewed as progressive or regressive . Rates of tax may vary or be constant (flat) by income level. Many systems allow individuals certain personal allowances and other non-business reductions to taxable income, although business deductions tend to be favored over personal deductions. Tax-collection agencies often collect personal income tax on
13254-730: The land. Property taxes are usually charged on a recurrent basis (e.g., yearly). A common type of property tax is an annual charge on the ownership of real estate , where the tax base is the estimated value of the property. For a period of over 150 years from 1695, the government of England levied a window tax , with the result that one can still see listed buildings with windows bricked up in order to save their owner's money. A similar tax on hearths existed in France and elsewhere, with similar results. The two most common types of event-driven property taxes are stamp duty , charged upon change of ownership, and inheritance tax , which many countries impose on
13395-504: The late Qing China . Occupational taxes or license fees may be imposed on businesses or individuals engaged in certain businesses. Many jurisdictions impose a tax on vehicles. A poll tax, also called a per capita tax , or capitation tax , is a tax that levies a set amount per individual. It is an example of the concept of fixed tax . One of the earliest taxes mentioned in the Bible of a half-shekel per annum from each adult Jew (Ex. 30:11–16)
13536-439: The latest incarnation of a series of taxes for funding local services known as rates, based on property values. The first rate was part of the Vagabonds Act 1572 , which established relief for the poor at the local parish level, paid for by inhabitants of the parish. A system of rates to fund local government and services evolved over the next three centuries, including a separate system for London from 1869 to 1963. Changes included
13677-433: The latest order came into force on 2 March 2015 and extended the relief until the end of March 2016. In England, the rating list that came into force on 1 April 2005 featured a new relief designed to benefit small businesses. The Local Government Act 2003 introduced a small business relief, initially set at 50% for properties with a rateable value of below £6,000, which is reduced by 1% for each £120 over £6,000 (effectively
13818-459: The legislation. This was rectified by the Rating (Valuation) Act 1999, which amended the 1988 Act to explicitly include the assumption. The repair assumption includes the proviso of "excluding from this assumption any repairs which a reasonable landlord would consider uneconomic." The property is assumed to be vacant and to let. The material day is the day on which matters affecting the physical state of
13959-424: The local authority and they do not affect the rateable value of a property. While some are mandatory, others are at the discretion of the local authority, who also have to bear, in whole or in part, the costs of some reliefs. In addition to specific reliefs, a hardship relief is available at the discretion of the local authority. A relief on non-agricultural business on agricultural land or former agricultural buildings
14100-475: The loss, such that business losses can only be deducted against business income tax by carrying forward the loss to later tax years. In economics, a negative income tax (abbreviated NIT) is a progressive income tax system where people earning below a certain amount receive supplemental payment from the government instead of paying taxes to the government. Most jurisdictions imposing an income tax treat capital gains as part of income subject to tax. Capital gain
14241-425: The maximum amount, and that the tax was levied on the property's capital value rather than on its notional rental value. Households with only one occupant were also entitled to a 25 per cent discount. The only substantial change since the introduction of the Council Tax form of direct taxation is the gradual introduction of certain exemptions and discounts. In 2015, any remaining debt was written off in Scotland with
14382-529: The multiplier is 49.7 pence and the small business rate multiplier is 48.4 pence. The multiplier for 2017/18 is 47.9 pence, which means that as of that date, this tax has increased in real terms by 37.6% since its inception in 1990. The rateable values are updated to current market values, but the multiplier has increased from 34.8p (or 34.8%) to 47.9p (47.9%). The bill may also be reduced by having one or more reliefs applied to it, such as reliefs for empty properties, or for charities. Reliefs are administered by
14523-470: The nature of the transaction (such as a freehold sale, or agreement of a lease ). Assessing a rateable value requires a valuation that follows the above process, but the matters to be considered are constrained by legislation. So the physical properties are considered not at the present day, but at the Material Day, and are constrained by the valuation assumptions. The economic conditions are considered at
14664-403: The neighbouring property as well, the two together are the hereditament. Gilbert v Hickinbottom featured an exception to the general rule, where there were two properties in the same occupation, separated by a public highway. It was held that the functional connection between the two properties was so great that they were to be treated as a single hereditament. Functional connection is judged by
14805-586: The non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing , to alter prices in order to affect demand , or to regulate some form of cost or benefit . States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used the money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. Some of these include expenditures on economic infrastructure ( roads , public transportation , sanitation , legal systems , public security , public education , public health systems ), military , scientific research & development , culture and
14946-499: The overall increase in liability across the country is in line with the Retail Prices Index , a measure of inflation. A property whose rateable value changes exactly in line with the national average would see an inflation-only rise in liability. Conversely, properties with unusually large changes in rateable value would have a significant change in liability. To smooth these jumps in liability, schemes of transitional relief have been applied to each rating list. These operate by restricting
15087-417: The percentage of the tax burden as it relates to income or consumption. The terms progressive, regressive, and proportional are used to describe the way the rate progresses from low to high, from high to low, or proportionally. The terms describe a distribution effect, which can be applied to any type of tax system (income or consumption) that meets the definition. The terms can also be used to apply meaning to
15228-556: The period 1 April 2009 to 31 March 2010. Where part of a property is to be empty for a short time, a discretionary form of empty relief exists for that empty part. The local authority can request an apportionment of the rateable value between empty and occupied parts from the Valuation Office Agency; the empty part can then receive relief in the normal way. This apportionment does not affect the rating list entry. To give relief to properties considered vital to rural communities,
15369-462: The poll tax was announced on 21 March 1991. The Conservative government was re-elected for a fourth successive term in office at the 1992 general election , shaking off the strong challenge from the Labour Party. The Labour Party having been defeated in this way, their leader Neil Kinnock resigned. By the time of the 1992 general election, legislation had been passed replacing the poll tax with
15510-403: The poll tax. This was a fixed tax per adult resident, although there was a reduction for poor people. This charged each person for the services provided in their community. Owing to the variations in the amount of local taxes paid and the amount of grant provided by central government to individual local authorities, there were differences in the amount charged between councils. It become known as
15651-469: The power to levy a local supplement, in consultation with affected businesses; responses from the business sector have ranged from caution to opposition. Following the creation of the National Assembly for Wales in 1999, some of the powers previously exercised by the UK government were devolved to the Welsh Assembly government. The English and Welsh systems were able to diverge slightly, with Wales setting
15792-404: The property are taken into account. The matters are those affecting the physical state or physical enjoyment, and the mode or category of occupation of the property. This can include the physical state of the locality, or matters which have a physical manifestation in the locality, and the use of other properties in the locality. For certain properties, including mines, quarries and landfill sites,
15933-418: The property at a fixed date. Currently, this date is two years prior to the beginning of the list (known as the antecedent valuation date), incorporating certain assumptions laid down in the legislation. To value a property, a valuer would look at the physical properties of the property (such as size and location), and consider the economic conditions (the market price for similar local properties), along with
16074-479: The proportion by which liability may change per year, both upwards and downwards. The 1990 and 1995 transitional relief schemes required funding from the Treasury , while the 2000 list scheme was designed to be revenue-neutral over the lifetime of the list, albeit with Treasury funding at the beginning. The Local Government Act 2003 required that all revaluations in England feature a revenue-neutral scheme, beginning with
16215-458: The public sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments. Governments also obtain resources by "creating" money and coins (for example, by printing bills and by minting coins), through voluntary gifts (for example, contributions to public universities and museums), by imposing penalties (such as traffic fines ), by borrowing and confiscating criminal proceeds. From
16356-440: The purpose of taxation is to maintain the stability of the currency, express public policy regarding the distribution of wealth, subsidizing certain industries or population groups or isolating the costs of certain benefits, such as highways or social security. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) publishes an analysis of the tax systems of member countries. As part of such analysis, OECD has developed
16497-423: The quantity of minerals, wastes, or other substances deposited on or remaining in the land are taken into account. When the list is compiled, the material day is the day the list is compiled (1 April 2005 for the 2005 valuation list). If the list is further altered, the material day may be different for that alteration. For example, in the 2005 rating list the material day for an alteration to reflect an extension to
16638-570: The rates in Scotland from the start of the 1989/90 financial year and in England and Wales from the start of the 1990/91 financial year. Additionally, the Uniform Business Rate , levied by local government at a rate set by central government and then apportioned between local authorities in proportion to their population, was introduced. The tax was not implemented in Northern Ireland , which continued, as it still does as of 2018 , to levy
16779-478: The rating system, despite some unionists calling for the region to have the same taxation system as Great Britain. The poll tax when implemented encountered a number of administrative and enforcement difficulties. Some renters did not pay, knowing they would have moved elsewhere by the time the bills arrived. Councils of towns with highly mobile populations, such as university towns, were faced with big store rooms of unprocessed "gone-aways". The initial register, which
16920-521: The relief in England, a supplement is added to the Uniform Business Rate multiplier. However, this supplement is only applied to properties with rateable values of £15,000 or higher (£21,500 in London), so properties between £12,000 and £18,000 receive neither the relief, nor the supplement In Wales, small business rates relief was not introduced until 2007. It replaced rural property relief, but included similar provisions, with 50% relief for most properties with
17061-511: The revaluations in England and Wales had been cancelled in 1978 and 1983. The Scottish revaluation of 1985/1986 led to a great deal of criticism and gave added urgency to rates reform or replacement . The green paper of 1986, Paying for Local Government , produced by the Department of the Environment from consultations between Lord Rothschild , William Waldegrave and Kenneth Baker , proposed
17202-484: The right amount of tax at the right time and securing the correct tax allowances and tax relief. The first known taxation occurred in Ancient Egypt around 3000–2800 BC. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as labor equivalent. All countries have a tax system in place to pay for public, common societal, or agreed national needs and for the functions of government. Some countries levy
17343-456: The same curtilage or contiguous to one another, and are in the same occupation, they are as a general rule to be treated for rating purposes as if they formed parts of a single hereditament. There are exceptional cases, however, where for some special reason they may be treated as two or more hereditaments. Where the two properties are in the same occupation but are not within the same curtilage nor contiguous to one another, each of them must as
17484-624: The scale of the Trafalgar Square riot. As the amount of the poll tax began to rise and the inefficiency of local councils in their collection of the tax became apparent, large numbers of people refused to pay. Local councils tried to respond with enforcement measures, but they were largely ineffective given the huge numbers of non-payers. According to the BBC, up to 30 per cent of former ratepayers in some areas refused to pay. The anti-poll-tax organisations encouraged non-payers not to register, to clog up
17625-470: The settlement. The only public house or petrol station (with rateable values of up £10,500, as of 2005) in a settlement may also receive the relief, which is a mandatory 50%. Discretionary relief of up to 100% is available for the previous properties, and for any others up to a current limit of £12000 rateable value, provided they are judged to be of benefit to the local community. Officially known as "Non-Domestic Rating (Small Business Rate Relief)" (SBRR),
17766-438: The strength of the connection and the degree and nature of the separation. In Edwards (VO) v. BP Refinery [1974], the analogy of a spark plug was used to illustrate the principle. A hereditament can include the right to exhibit advertisements on another's property (such as a commercial advertising hoarding ), mines, and certain sporting rights. Some items of plant and machinery within a hereditament are assumed to be included in
17907-410: The supply of people is in fact not fixed over time: on average, couples will choose to have fewer children if a poll tax is imposed. The introduction of a poll tax in medieval England was the primary cause of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt . Scotland was the first to be used to test the new poll tax in 1989 with England and Wales in 1990. The change from progressive local taxation based on property values to
18048-516: The taxation of select consumption, such as a tax on luxury goods and the exemption of basic necessities may be described as having progressive effects as it increases a tax burden on high end consumption and decreases a tax burden on low end consumption. Taxes are sometimes referred to as "direct taxes" or "indirect taxes". The meaning of these terms can vary in different contexts, which can sometimes lead to confusion. An economic definition, by Atkinson, states that "...direct taxes may be adjusted to
18189-405: The total payroll. These taxes may be imposed in both the country and sub-country levels. A wealth tax is levied on the total value of personal assets, including: bank deposits, real estate, assets in insurance and pension plans, ownership of unincorporated businesses , financial securities , and personal trusts. Liabilities (primarily mortgages and other loans) are typically deducted, hence it
18330-672: The total tax paid is the same, but it is paid at differing points in the process. VAT is usually administrated by requiring the company to complete a VAT return, giving details of VAT it has been charged (referred to as input tax) and VAT it has charged to others (referred to as output tax). The difference between output tax and input tax is payable to the Local Tax Authority. Many tax authorities have introduced automated VAT which has increased accountability and auditability , by utilizing computer systems, thereby also enabling anti-cybercrime offices as well. Sales taxes are levied when
18471-443: The view of economists, a tax is a non-penal, yet compulsory transfer of resources from the private to the public sector , levied on a basis of predetermined criteria and without reference to specific benefits received. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money; but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre- capitalist states and their functional equivalents. The method of taxation and
18612-509: The year 1643, as part of a scheme of revenue and taxation devised by parliamentarian John Pym and approved by the Long Parliament . These duties consisted of charges on beer, ale, cider, cherry wine, and tobacco, to which list were afterward added paper, soap, candles, malt, hops, and sweets. The basic principle of excise duties was that they were taxes on the production, manufacture, or distribution of articles which could not be taxed through
18753-443: Was a form of the poll tax. Poll taxes are administratively cheap because they are easy to compute and collect and difficult to cheat. Economists have considered poll taxes economically efficient because people are presumed to be in fixed supply and poll taxes, therefore, do not lead to economic distortions. However, poll taxes are very unpopular because poorer people pay a higher proportion of their income than richer people. In addition,
18894-507: Was a local tax in England and Wales on both domestic and non-domestic property and was based on rental values. It retained the core concept of how to identify a rateable property from the older rating systems, which, along with other features, can still be seen in the modern system. The Local Government Finance Act 1988 repealed the General Rate Act and replaced it with two new taxes from 1 April 1990. The Community Charge , better known as
19035-425: Was based on the rates register for "owned" houses, contained many irregularities from supplementary data sources such as housing benefit recipients. A significant collection issue was the 20 per cent /100 per cent split. People in employment had to pay 100 per cent, while students and the registered unemployed paid 20 per cent. The nature of the shared house market meant that not even the landlord knew exactly who
19176-650: Was implemented first, the APTUs called for mass non-payment. As the tax neared its implementation in England, protests against it began to increase. That culminated in a number of poll tax riots . The most serious of those was on 31 March 1990 – a week before the implementation of the tax – when between 70,000 and 200,000 people demonstrated against the tax. The demonstration around Trafalgar Square left 113 people injured and 340 under arrest, with over 100 police officers needing treatment for injuries. There were further conflicts and protests, but none on
19317-430: Was living there; tenants were replaced and may have shared a "single" room with their partner. Therefore, the local council did not know who was living where and when. Councils were burdened with the task of pursuing the large numbers of defaulters, many of whom were participating in organised resistance to the charge. There is also some evidence that the poll tax had a lasting effect of people not registering themselves on
19458-546: Was released on 15 April 1990. Over 40 people collaborated on Punk Aide's 1989 compilations Axe The Tax, Can't Pay Won't Pay and Fuck The Poll Tax . Oi Polloi and Chumbawamba released and toured an EP called Smash the Poll Tax . A compilation album, A Pox Upon The Poll Tax , was also released in 1989. The Orchids released "Defy The Law" in response to the Poll Tax. On their 22 March 1990 Top Of The Pops appearance, Orbital performed " Chime " while wearing hoodies with
19599-418: Was removed with effect from 14 August 2006. There are three types of relief to which a charity may be entitled: mandatory relief on occupied property, discretionary relief on occupied property and mandatory zero rating for unoccupied property. The relevant legislation is the Local Government Finance Act 1988. The reliefs are not straightforward, and, in particular, the granting of the discretionary relief (which
19740-466: Was still Prime Minister. Kinnock had vowed to abolish the poll tax if he won the next general election. For this, among other reasons, Thatcher was challenged by Michael Heseltine for the Conservative leadership in November 1990. Although she prevailed by a margin of fifty votes, she narrowly missed the threshold to avoid a second vote, and on 22 November 1990 she announced her resignation after more than
19881-449: Was taxed the same fixed sum (a " poll tax " or " head tax "), with the precise amount being set by each local authority. It replaced domestic rates in Scotland from 1989, prior to its introduction in England and Wales from 1990. The abolition of the poll tax was announced in 1991 and it was replaced in 1993 by the current system of the Council Tax . [REDACTED] The abolition of
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