108-563: The Not Fucking Around Coalition ( NFAC ) is a black nationalist militia , part of the militia movement in the United States. The group advocates for black liberation and separatism . It has been described by news outlets as a "Black militia ". It denies any connection to the Black Panther Party or Black Lives Matter . John Fitzgerald Johnson, also known as Grand Master Jay and John Jay Fitzgerald Johnson, claims leadership of
216-490: A concealed-carry permit or the ability to obtain one. The first reported appearance of NFAC members was a May 12, 2020, protest near Brunswick, Georgia , over the February murder of Ahmaud Arbery , though they were identified by local media as "Black Panthers". Johnson stated that NFAC provided armed security for the sister of Rayshard Brooks at her request. NFAC escorted her to a rally in downtown Atlanta in late June. On
324-410: A nondenominational church specifically for Black people. This in turn paved the way for the first independent Black churches in the United States. The church and its members played a key role in the abolition/anti-slavery and equal rights movement of the 1800s and it would later be involved in the civil rights movement. Mutual aid became a foundation of social welfare in the United States until
432-531: A "nation within a nation," and therefore should seek better rights and political power within a multicultural US. Black nationalists often fought racism, colonialism, and imperialism, and influenced the Organization of Afro-American Unity , Black Panther Party , Black Islam , and the Black Power movement . There are similarities between Black separatism and Black nationalism, since they both advocate for
540-494: A child. He attended the University of Louisville for his undergraduate and legal education. Cameron worked as a law clerk for U.S. District Judge Gregory F. Van Tatenhove for two years, and was then legal counsel to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell from 2015 to 2017. In September 2020, he was among the final 20 additions to President Donald Trump 's updated list of his potential Supreme Court nominees . Cameron ran in
648-846: A diverse range of beliefs which have variously included forms of economic , political and cultural nationalism , or pan-nationalism . It often overlaps with, but is distinguished from, similar concepts and movements such as Pan-Africanism , Ethiopianism , the back-to-Africa movement , Afrocentrism , Black Zionism , and Garveyism . Critics of Black nationalism compare it to white nationalism and white supremacy , and say it promotes racial and ethnic nationalism , separatism and Black supremacy . Most experts distinguish between these movements, saying that while white nationalism ultimately seeks to maintain or deepen inequality between racial and ethnic groups, most forms of Black nationalism instead aim to increase equality in response to pre-existing forms of white dominance. Black nationalism reflects
756-519: A few weeks because of widespread protests by white students. During the cholera epidemics of 1833 and 1854 in Pittsburgh, Delany treated patients, even though many doctors and residents fled the city out of fear of contamination. Beginning in 1847, Delany worked alongside Frederick Douglass in Rochester, New York to publish the anti-slavery newspaper The North Star . Delany dreamed of establishing
864-510: A margin of 132,400 (55.3%) votes to 106,950 (44.7%) votes. After the primary, he was endorsed by President Donald Trump . In the November 2019 general election, Cameron defeated the Democratic nominee, former attorney general Greg Stumbo , with 57.8% of the vote. He was the first Republican elected to be attorney general of Kentucky since Eldon S. Dummit , who served from 1944 to 1948. He
972-453: A model for later African American banks. It operated ten private schools for Blacks across Pennsylvania, performed burials and weddings, and recorded births and marriages. Its activity and open doors served as motivator for growth for the city, inspiring many other Black mutual aid societies to pop up. In 1793, Jones and several other FAS members also founded the St. Thomas African Episcopal Church ,
1080-428: A news conference announcing the wanton endangerment charges against Hankison, Cameron appeared to choke up, and said "My heart breaks for the loss of Miss Taylor." Cameron initially stated at the news conference that he had walked the grand jury through "every homicide offense, and also presented all of the information that was available," and that it was the jury that "made the determination" to not bring charges against
1188-463: A petition with the Kentucky House of Representatives, asking that Cameron be impeached, saying he mishandled the case. They also said that Cameron lied and fed misinformation to the media in an effort to make himself look desirable, and to avoid accountability. They said that while Cameron stated to the public that homicide charges against the officers were a possibility, that was not at all true, as
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#17328520498061296-552: A racially mixed population. He inspired a racist social movement in Germany, named Gobinism , and his works were influential on prominent antisemites like Richard Wagner , Houston Stewart Chamberlain , A. C. Cuza , and the Nazi Party . In 1885, Haitian anthropologist and barrister Anténor Firmin published De l'égalité des races humaines ( On the Equality of Human Races ) as
1404-524: A rebuttal to Count Arthur de Gobineau 's work, challenging the idea that brain size was a measure of human intelligence and noting the presence of Black Africans in Pharaonic Egypt . Firmin then explored the significance of the Haitian Revolution of 1804 and the ensuing achievements of Haitians such as Léon Audain , Isaïe Jeanty and Edmond Paul. (Both Audain and Jeanty had obtained prizes from
1512-460: A right to representation or self-governance . Black nationalists therefore seek to acquire political and economic power to improve the quality of life and freedoms of Black people collectively. Black nationalists tend to believe in self-reliance and self-sufficiency for Black people, solidarity among Black people as a nation, and pride in Black achievement and culture , in order to overcome
1620-732: A settlement in West Africa. He visited Liberia , a United States colony founded by the American Colonization Society , and lived in Canada for several years, but when the American Civil War began, he returned to the United States. When the United States Colored Troops were created in 1863, he recruited for them. Commissioned as a major in February 1865, Delany became the first African American field grade officer in
1728-534: A video of the event on its official YouTube page, reporting the number of militia members registered and present as 3,500. On July 20, preceding the event, Kentucky Attorney General Daniel Cameron and Louisville Metro Council President David James had a phone conversation with Johnson, which the AG's office described as "productive". In response to the announced NFAC presence, about 50 armed Three Percenters counter-protested. Louisville police in riot gear helped to facilitate
1836-504: A way to advocate for democratic representation in culturally plural societies or to establish self-governing independent nation-states for Black people. Modern Black nationalism often aims for the social, political, and economic empowerment of Black communities within white majority societies , either as an alternative to assimilation or as a way to ensure greater representation and equality within predominantly Eurocentric cultures. As an ideology, Black nationalism encompasses
1944-430: A weapon into the home of a family living next door to Taylor's apartment. At the same time, however, Cameron's office decided not to charge officers Jonathan Mattingly and Myles Cosgrove, who had shot Taylor six times and killed her, with any crimes, as Cameron decided that they had not engaged in any wrongdoing. Cameron said that their firing their weapons into Taylor's apartment was a justified use of force . At
2052-434: Is Kentucky's first African-American attorney general. Following Republican former lieutenant governor Jenean Hampton , Cameron became Kentucky's second African-American statewide officer, and the first to be independently elected (given that Hampton had shared the 2015 gubernatorial ticket with Matt Bevin ). Cameron's term as attorney general was scheduled to begin on January 6, 2020, but incumbent Andy Beshear resigned
2160-614: Is an American attorney and politician who served as the 51st attorney general of Kentucky from 2020 to 2024. A member of the Republican Party , Cameron was the first African American and the first Republican since 1943 to be elected to the office. He was also the Republican nominee in the 2023 Kentucky gubernatorial election , losing to Democratic incumbent Andy Beshear . Born in Plano, Texas , Cameron moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky as
2268-543: Is especially popular among those who have become disillusioned with "deferred American racial equality". In this schema, Black nationalism without Black separatism is called "cultural nationalism". Separatist nationalism often rejects integration into white society—which may extend into rejection of existing political systems—preferring to organise alternative structures. Black nationalism, however, often focuses on engagement with societal and political structures to enact change, such as by attempting to elect Black representatives at
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#17328520498062376-478: The 2019 Kentucky Attorney General election , receiving Trump's endorsement after the primary. He won with 57.7% of the vote. As attorney general, Cameron unsuccessfully challenged several of Beshear's COVID-19 restrictions. Following the killing of Breonna Taylor , Cameron announced the decision of his office as special prosecutor not to charge the two police officers who had shot and killed her, leading to widespread protests against Cameron's decision. Cameron
2484-559: The Académie Nationale de Médecine .) Though marginalized for his belief in the equality of all races, his work influenced Pan-African and Black nationalist thought, and the négritude movement. Firmin influenced Jean Price-Mars , the initiator of Haitian ethnology and developer of the concept of Indigenism , and 20th-century American anthropologist Melville Herskovits . Martin Delany (1812–1885), an African American abolitionist ,
2592-713: The Bible . This helped establish a new class of educated black people in America. Before the American Revolutionary War of 1775–1783, few slaves were manumitted. On the eve of the American Revolution, there was an estimated 30,000 free African Americans in Colonial America which accounts for about 5% of the total African American population. The Revolutionary War greatly disrupted slave societies and showed Bl With
2700-648: The Black Panther Party and the Revolutionary Action Movement also adopted a set of anti-colonialist politics inspired by the writings of notable revolutionary theorists including Frantz Fanon , Mao Zedong , and Kwame Nkrumah . In the words of Ahmad Muhammad (formerly known as Max Stanford) the national field chairman of the Revolutionary Action Movement: We are revolutionary black nationalist[s], not based on ideas of national superiority, but striving for justice and liberation of all
2808-690: The Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor , a British organization with government support, launched its efforts to establish the Sierra Leone Province of Freedom , a colony in West Africa for London 's "Black poor". After Nova Scotia proved a hostile environment for many of the new settlers, with extreme weather as well as racism from the white Nova Scotians, about a third of the Loyalists, and nearly all of
2916-732: The Fortress of Louisbourg on Île-Royale (now Cape Breton Island ) became the first Black community in Nova Scotia. During this early period, 381 Black people, some free and others enslaved, escaped or were brought to the Fortress, mostly from the Francophone Caribbean colonies. It was home to a mix of freed and unfree enslaved Africans, who undertook a variety of trades and professions, such as gardeners, bakers, stonemasons, musicians, soldiers, sailors, fishermen, hospital workers, and more. After
3024-726: The Free African Society , and the African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas lay the groundwork for the independent Black organizations and communities that would follow. Meanwhile, Black people were relocated from the Americas and Britain to new colonies in Sierra Leone and Liberia , paving the way for Black-led nations in those countries. Back in the Caribbean, the Haitian Revolution proved to disparate Black communities across
3132-766: The Jamaican Maroons , petitioned the British for passage to Sierra Leone as well, eventually leading to the founding of Freetown in 1792. Their descendants are known as the Sierra Leone Creole people . Since most sources of welfare at the time were controlled by whites, free blacks across the early United States created their own mutual aid societies. These societies offered cultural centers, spiritual assistance, and financial resources to their members. The Free African Union Society , founded in 1780 in Newport, Rhode Island ,
3240-854: The Kentucky Supreme Court blocked efforts by Cameron and lower courts to nullify the executive orders, pending the state Supreme Court's own review. In November 2020, the Kentucky Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of Beshear's emergency coronavirus executive orders. In December 2020, an initial ruling by Judge Gregory F. Van Tatenhove of the Federal District Court in Frankfort, Kentucky (for whom Cameron had clerked for two years), found in favor of Cameron in his lawsuit challenging Beshear's order to temporarily close all elementary, middle, and high schools to combat
3348-669: The Ku Klux Klan . Interest among the South's Black population in African emigration peaked during the 1890s, a time when racism reached its peak and the greatest number of lynchings in American history took place. During the period known as New Imperialism (1833 to 1914), European nations colonized and occupied Africa in the " Scramble for Africa ". This mobilized Black people in the diaspora to activism in their home nations. Ethiopia and Liberia were
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3456-972: The Revolutionary War , General Washington urged the British to return the Black Loyalists as stolen property, under the Treaty of Paris (1783). The British attempted to keep their promise to the Loyalists by relocating them outside the US. The British transported more than 3,000 Black Loyalists and Jamaican Maroons to resettle in Nova Scotia (part of present-day Ontario ). Between 1749 and 1816, approximately 10,000 Black people settled in Nova Scotia. Those settlers who remained in Nova Scotia would go on to found large communities of freed Black people, forming 52 black settlements in total, and would develop their own national identity as Black Nova Scotians . Meanwhile, in 1786,
3564-479: The Revolutionary War , when educated Africans within the colonies became disgusted with the social conditions of Black people, and sought to create organizations that would unite Black people and improve their situation. The third period of Black nationalism arose during the post -Reconstruction era, as community leaders began to articulate the need to separate Blacks from non-Blacks for safety and to collectivize resources. The new ideology of this third period informed
3672-666: The Southern Poverty Law Center , Black nationalist groups have "little or no impact on mainstream politics and no defenders in high office", unlike white supremacists. Black nationalism may also be divided into revolutionary or reactionary Black nationalism. Revolutionary Black nationalism combines cultural nationalism with scientific socialism in order to achieve Black self-determination . Proponents of revolutionary Black nationalism say it rejects all forms of oppression, including class-based exploitation under capitalism. Revolutionary Black nationalist organizations such as
3780-731: The United States Army . After the Civil War, Delany went to the South, settling in South Carolina, where he worked for the Freedmen's Bureau and became politically active, including in the Colored Conventions Movement . Delany ran unsuccessfully for Lieutenant Governor as an Independent Republican . He was appointed as a trial judge, but he was removed following a scandal. Delany later switched his party affiliation. He worked for
3888-567: The Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793 , when many other residents abandoned the city. Notable members included African-American abolitionists such as Cyrus Bustill , James Forten , and William Gray, as well as survivors of the Haitian Revolution in Saint-Domingue , as well as fugitive slaves escaping from the South. The FAS provided guidance, medical care, and financial advice. The last became particularly important, and would establish
3996-499: The coronavirus pandemic , arguing it was an elective medical procedure that should fall under the statewide ban for the duration of the pandemic. During the closing days of the legislative session, the Kentucky legislature voted to give the attorney general power to regulate abortion clinics, but the legislation was vetoed by Beshear. Cameron initiated unsuccessful legal challenges to executive actions that Governor Beshear took to combat
4104-496: The 1775 proclamation of Lord Dunmore , governor of Virginia, the British began recruiting the slaves of American revolutionaries and promised them freedom in return. Free Blacks like Prince Hall proposed that Blacks be allowed to join the American side, believing if they were involved in founding the new nation, it would aid in attaining freedom for all Black people. The Continental Army gradually began to allow Blacks to fight in exchange for their freedom. Between 1713 and 1758,
4212-584: The 18th century, Nanny Town and other Jamaican maroon villages began to fight for independent recognition. Jamaican Maroons consistently fought British colonists, leading to the First Maroon War (1728–1740). By 1740, the British governor of the Colony of Jamaica , Edward Trelawny had signed two treaties promising them 2,500 acres (1,012 ha) in Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) and Crawford's Town , bringing an end to
4320-605: The ACS, as did the abolitionist movement . Many African Americans, both free and enslaved, were pressured into emigrating anyway. By 1833, the Society had transported only 2,769 individuals out of the U.S. and close to half the arrivals in Liberia died from tropical diseases. During the early years, 22% of the settlers in Liberia died within one year. According to Benjamin Quarles , however,
4428-495: The Americas that they could achieve independence or equality in the law, if they cooperated and worked together. The First Great Awakening ( c. 1730–1755) was a series of Christian revivals that swept Britain and its thirteen North American colonies . The revival movement permanently affected Protestantism as adherents strove to renew individual piety and religious devotion. Northern Baptist and Methodist preachers converted both white and Black people, whether
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4536-549: The COVID-19 pandemic and emphasized his opposition to abortion. Trump endorsed Cameron's gubernatorial bid. In the Republican primary, Cameron defeated challengers Kelly Craft and Ryan Quarles . On July 19, 2023, Cameron announced State Senator Robby Mills as his running mate for Lieutenant Governor . Cameron was the first major-party African-American nominee for governor in the Commonwealth's history. He ran against Beshear in
4644-552: The Caribbean, escaped slaves began to form independent Black communities either in exile or with Indigenous American groups , becoming known as maroons . Maroons armed themselves to survive attacks by hostile colonists while also obtaining food for subsistence living and setting up their own communities. Others enslaved Africans were freed or bought their freedom, and began to seek their own independence, away from white society. This often included calls to emigrate to Africa and help build independent Black nations there. On some of
4752-585: The Commonwealth's criminal laws." After his election as Kentucky attorney general, Cameron was seen by some analysts as a rising star in the Republican Party. He spoke at the 2020 Republican National Convention on August 24, 2020. In September 2020, Cameron appeared on a 20-person shortlist of potential U.S. Supreme Court nominees by President Donald Trump . Cameron announced his candidacy for governor on May 11, 2022. He criticized incumbent Democratic governor Andy Beshear 's emergency orders during
4860-579: The FBI for allegedly aiming his rifle at police officers during protests about Breonna Taylor's killing. He was later federally indicted the following year on February 24, 2021, and has since been found guilty. In November 2022, he was sentenced to 7 years and 2 months in prison along with 3 years of supervision after completion of the term. He is currently incarcerated at Ashland FCI . On June 23, 2021, former NFAC member Othal "Ozone" Wallace shot and killed Daytona Beach Police Department Officer Jason Raynor whilst he
4968-633: The Fourth of July , 2020, local media reported that about 100 to 200 mostly armed NFAC members marched through Stone Mountain Park near Atlanta , Georgia , calling for the removal of the Confederate monument. Reuters reported the number of participants as "scores." The NFAC posted videos of the event and reported the number as 1,500. The Stone Mountain Memorial Association, which operates the park, stated that
5076-605: The Fourth of July, 2020. Johnson thus stated at the formation, "I want the heart of the Ku Klux Klan to hear me no matter where the fuck you are. I'm in your house. Where you at? You made a threat. We don't threaten." On July 25, a local news outlet stated that "more than 300" members were gathered in Louisville, Kentucky to protest the lack of action against the officers responsible for the March killing of Breonna Taylor . The NFAC posted
5184-619: The Louisville Urban League said: "How can it be that the federal government and state government are so far apart on this case?" She demanded an investigation into Cameron's prosecution of the case — which she said was either "incompetent" or "in collusion" with the police. In September 2022, the Louisville branch of the NAACP asked Cameron to resign, saying he failed to conduct a fair investigation into Breonna Taylor's shooting death, and
5292-448: The United States. While Cameron could have appointed a special prosecutor, he instead opted to have his office act as special prosecutor in the case, because of the "importance of this matter...." More than six months after Taylor's killing, Cameron announced the decision of his office as special prosecutor, following the conclusion of a state grand jury investigation into Taylor's shooting. Cameron's office decided not to charge
5400-456: The West is not orthodox Marxism (although it might be called Maoism or Castroism). As long as American Marxists cannot deal with the implications of revolutionary nationalism, both abroad and at home, they will continue to play the role of revolutionaries by proxy. Historian Wilson Jeremiah Moses suggests the development of Black nationalism can be examined over three different periods, giving rise to
5508-453: The association, said: "Kentucky banks must be allowed to make good business decisions for their bank, their customers and community without worrying about how they relate to broader ideological or political goals." On March 13, 2020, Breonna Taylor was killed by police gunfire when plainclothes officers who were serving a search warrant were confronted by an armed man inside her apartment and fired 32 shots. This killing led to protests across
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#17328520498065616-545: The campaign of Democrat Wade Hampton III , who won the 1876 election for governor in a season marked by violent suppression of Black Republican voters by Red Shirts and fraud in balloting. After Emancipation, the back-to-Africa movement eventually began to decline. In 1877, at the end of the Reconstruction era , it would experience a revival as many Black people in the American South faced violence from groups such as
5724-524: The cast of The Real Housewives of Atlanta ), and charged them each with several crimes including Intimidating a Participant in the Legal Process, a Class D felony . Cameron accused the protestors of trespassing on his private property and claimed the protest's purpose was to "escalate" tension and division in the community. On September 23, 2020, Cameron announced the indictment of former officer Brett Hankison on three counts of wanton endangerment . The charges weren't for killing Taylor, but for firing
5832-442: The civil rights of Black people. While Black separatists believe that Black people should be physically separated from other races, primarily whites, Black nationalism focuses primarily on civil rights , self-determination , and democratic representation . These two ideologies can also overlap as "separatist nationalism", which typically manifests in the belief in a literal or metaphorical secession from white American society, and
5940-435: The colonies (specifically within New England and Pennsylvania) had become disgusted with the social conditions of Black people. Individuals such as Prince Hall , Richard Allen , Absalom Jones , James Forten , Cyrus Bustill and William Gray sought to create organizations that would unite Black people, who had been excluded from white society, and improve their situation collectively. Institutions such as Black Masonic lodges ,
6048-495: The colonization movement "originated abolitionism" by arousing the free Black people and other opponents of slavery. Between 1822 and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, more than 15,000 freed and free-born African Americans , along with 3,198 Afro-Caribbeans , relocated to Liberia. The settlers carried their culture and tradition with them, gradually developing a Black national identity as Americo-Liberians . Liberia declared independence on July 26, 1847, becoming
6156-402: The discrimination African Americans experienced as a result, and the perceived failures of the nonviolent civil rights movement of the time. After the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, the Black nationalism movement gained increased traction in various African American communities. A focus on returning to Africa became less popular, giving way to the idea that Black people constituted
6264-416: The early 20th century, Jamaican activist Marcus Garvey moved to the US and, inspired by Zionism and Irish independence , promoted Black nationalist and Pan-African ideas, which collectively became known as Garveyism . Modern Black nationalist ideas coalesced as a distinct movement during the era of racial segregation in America , as a response to centuries of institutionalized white supremacy ,
6372-593: The early 20th century. Following the American Revolutionary War , the population of free people of color in the US had grown from 60,000 in 1790 to 300,000 by 1830. The prevailing view of white people was that free people of color could not integrate into U.S. society and slaveowners feared these free Blacks might help their slaves to escape or rebel . In addition, many White Americans believed that African Americans were inherently inferior and should be relocated. In Boston, Black Quaker and activist Paul Cuffe advocated settling freed American slaves in Africa. He
6480-435: The economy. Beshear noted that Cameron's filing called for the invalidation of executive action that required face masks in public places, imposed restrictions on public gatherings, expanded workers' compensation eligibility for workers who were under quarantine due to exposure to the virus, and the waiver of co-pays, deductibles, and other costs associated with COVID-19-related healthcare. In an interim order in July 2020,
6588-511: The effects of institutionalized inequality , self-hate and internalized racism . The roots of Black nationalism extend back to the time of the transatlantic trade in enslaved Africans , when some enslaved Africans revolted or formed independent Black settlements (such as the Maroons ), free of European control. By the 19th century, African Americans such as Paul Cuffe and Martin Delany called for free and fugitive Black people to emigrate to Africa to help establish independent nations. In
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#17328520498066696-413: The first African republic to proclaim its independence and Africa's first and oldest modern republic. The U.S. did not recognize Liberia's independence until February 5, 1862. The Haitian Revolution was a successful insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue (now the sovereign state of Haiti ). The revolt began on 22 August 1791, and ended in 1804 with
6804-406: The first time. He was a redshirt freshman defensive back on the 2006 Louisville Cardinals football team, coming off the bench for limited playing time in the first two games. He graduated from the University of Louisville with a B.S. in 2008. In 2011, he earned a J.D. from the University of Louisville School of Law where he was president of the Student Bar Association. Cameron
6912-419: The former colony's independence. From the revolt, the ex-slave Toussaint Louverture emerged as Haiti's most prominent general. The revolution was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state which was both free from slavery (though not from forced labour ) and ruled by non-whites and former captives. The successful revolution was a defining moment in the history of the Atlantic World and
7020-443: The ground, then ricocheted and hit three people. Johnson reported that two of those hit were checked by medics and cleared to continue to participate in the formation. On October 3, over 400 members of the NFAC along with over 200 other armed protesters marched in downtown Lafayette, Louisiana . This demonstration was sparked after United States Representative Clay Higgins made threats against protesters who showed up armed regarding
7128-464: The group and has stated that it is composed of "ex military shooters." Johnson served in the Virginia National Guard and the Army from 1989 to 2006, leaving at the rank of private due to an other than honorable discharge. He was an independent candidate for U.S. president in 2016 and has stated: "We are a Black militia. We aren't protesters, we aren't demonstrators. We don't come to sing, we don't come to chant. That's not what we do." Furthermore, in
7236-445: The idea that, in racialized societies, people of diverse African descent are often treated as a single racial, ethnic and cultural group (such as African Americans in the US or Black Britons in the UK). Because of a shared history of oppression and a distinct culture shaped by that history, Black nationalism argues that Black people in the African diaspora therefore form a distinct nation (or multiple distinct nations) and so have
7344-580: The immediate aftermath of the European Revolutions of 1848 , French aristocrat Count Arthur de Gobineau wrote the pseudoscientific An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races ( Essai sur l'inégalité des Races Humaines ), legitimizing scientific racism and decrying race-mixing as the doom of civilization . Gobineau's writings were quickly praised by white supremacist , pro-slavery Americans like Josiah C. Nott and Henry Hotze , who translated his book into English, but omitted around 1,000 pages, including parts that negatively described Americans as
7452-526: The intention of the NFAC was to establish the "United Black Kemetic Nation", a strictly black ethno-state . In 2019, Johnson told the Atlanta Black Star that the organization was formed to prevent another Greensboro Massacre . Thomas Mockaitis, professor of history at DePaul University stated: "In one sense it (NFAC) echoes the Black Panthers but they are more heavily armed and more disciplined... So far, they've coordinated with police and avoided engaging with violence." NFAC mandates that members have
7560-446: The larger Caribbean islands, maroon communities were able to grow crops and hunt for food. As more slaves escaped from plantations , their numbers could grow. Seeking to separate themselves from colonisers, the maroons gained in power amid increasing hostility. They raided and pillaged plantations until the planters began to fear a massive slave revolt. As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed communities in inland Jamaica , and by
7668-463: The latter were free or not. The message of spiritual equality appealed to many enslaved people and, as African religious traditions continued to decline in North America, Black people accepted Christianity in large numbers for the first time. Black people even began to take active roles in these mixed churches, sometimes even preaching. Many leaders of the revivals also proclaimed that enslaved people should be educated so that they could read and study
7776-983: The local and national level. Black cultural nationalism has broader support among African-Americans than separatist nationalism; the latter is more popular among young men and people of lower economic status. Examples of Black separatist organizations include the Nation of Islam and the New Black Panther Party . Black nationalists often reject conflation with Black supremacy , as well as comparisons with white supremacists , characterizing their movement as an anti-racist reaction to white supremacy and color-blind white liberalism as racist. Additionally, while white nationalism often seeks to maintain or re-establish systems of white majority dominance, Black nationalism instead aims to challenge white supremacy through increased civil rights and representation (or independence) for black people as an oppressed minority . According to
7884-408: The maintenance of space between the groups. Three NFAC members were wounded during a negligent weapon discharge. The NFAC said that the discharge occurred when a person who was not yet admitted into the formation collapsed from heat exhaustion and fired her weapon into the ground. The weapon was an older shotgun that Johnson said would not have been approved for the formation. The shotgun projectiles hit
7992-478: The mid-to-late 18th century, Methodist and Baptist evangelists during the period of the First Great Awakening ( c. 1730–1755) encouraged slave owners to free their slaves, in their belief that all men were equal before God. They converted many slaves to Christianity and approved Black leaders as preachers; Blacks developed their own churches . After the Revolutionary War , educated Africans within
8100-495: The natives. Escaped slaves sought refuge away from the coastal plantations of Ponce . In the plantation colony of Suriname , escaped slaves revolted and started to build their own villages. On October 10, 1760, the Ndyuka signed a treaty with the Dutch recognising their territorial autonomy; it was drafted by Adyáko Benti Basiton of Boston , a formerly enslaved African from Jamaica. In
8208-403: The office complied with Senate ethics rules, and helped shepherd the confirmations of conservative federal judges including Neil Gorsuch . In 2017, Cameron returned to Louisville and joined the law firm Frost Brown Todd as a senior associate in government affairs. Cameron ran for Attorney General of Kentucky in 2019 and defeated State Senator Wil Schroder in the Republican primary by
8316-402: The officers involved in the killing of Taylor. They were ex-Detectives Hankison and Joshua Jaynes, plus Detective Kelly Goodlett and Sergeant Kyle Meany. The US Department of Justice contended that officers conspired to file untrue statements, had made false statements to obtain a search warrant to search the victim's home, and engaged in a cover-up after her death. The president and CEO of
8424-409: The officers who had killed Taylor. The Louisville Courier Journal raised questions, however, about whether the grand jury was allowed to decide if charges should have been pressed against Mattingly and Cosgrove—or whether, instead, prosecutors had decided themselves that the officers had acted in self-defense, and not submitted the issue to the grand jury. Attorneys for Hankison and Walker requested
8532-564: The only African countries to maintain their sovereignty and independence during this time. The African Times and Orient Review would later encourage others to emigrate to Ethiopia as part of the back-to-Africa movement. In 1919, Marcus Garvey became President of the Black Star Line , designed to forge a link between North America and Africa and facilitate African-American migration to Liberia . Daniel Cameron (Kentucky politician) Daniel Jay Cameron (born November 22, 1985)
8640-504: The only charge that was presented to the grand jury was a wanton endangerment charge against an officer for firing his weapon into a nearby apartment. They also demanded that Cameron be disqualified from holding office in Kentucky in the future. In August 2022, after two years of unresolved questions that focused national attention on the case, the United States Department of Justice intervened and filed charges against four of
8748-473: The oppressed peoples of the world. ... There can be no liberty as long as black people are oppressed and the peoples of Africa, Asia, and Latin America are oppressed by Yankee imperialism and neo-colonialism. After four hundred years of oppression, we realize that slavery, racism and imperialism are all interrelated and that liberty and justice for all cannot exist peacefully with imperialism." Professor and author Harold Cruse said revolutionary Black nationalism
8856-673: The other two officers who had shot and killed Taylor. A judge ordered the release of the grand jury proceedings' recording. One day later, Cameron said that he had not recommended murder charges to the grand jury, but maintained that he presented "a thorough and complete case" to the grand jurors. Cameron then filed objections with the court, seeking to forbid the grand jurors from speaking publicly about what instructions they had received from his office, but Judge Annie O'Connell of Jefferson County Circuit Court refused to countenance his objections, writing that they "read as theatrical Sturm und Drang ." In January 2021, three grand jurors filed
8964-608: The pandemic. The U.S. Supreme Court overturned the trial court's opinion and held against Cameron. In November 2022, the Kentucky Bankers Association, which includes 150 banks doing business in Kentucky, sued Cameron in Franklin Circuit Court. Cameron had the case removed to the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Kentucky where it appeared before Judge Gregory Van Tatenhove, for whom Cameron
9072-617: The philosophy of groups like the Moorish Science Temple and the Nation of Islam . In the New World , as early as 1512, African slaves escaped from Spanish captors and either joined indigenous peoples or eked out a living on their own. The first recorded slave rebellion in the region occurred in what is today the Dominican Republic , on the sugar plantations owned by Admiral Diego Columbus , on 26 December 1522. Especially in
9180-511: The post -Reconstruction era, particularly among various African-American clergy circles. Separated circles were already established and accepted because African-Americans had long endured the oppression of slavery and Jim Crowism in the United States since its inception. The clerical phenomenon led to the birth of a modern form of Black nationalism that stressed the need to separate Blacks from non-Blacks and build separate communities that would promote racial pride and collectivize resources. In
9288-448: The post on December 10, 2019, to facilitate his inauguration as Governor of Kentucky. On December 17, 2019, Beshear signed an executive order appointing Cameron to serve the remainder of his term as attorney general. Cameron was sworn into office by U.S. District Judge Gregory F. Van Tatenhove , for whom Cameron had clerked after graduating from law school. On March 27, 2020, Cameron called for halting abortions in Kentucky during
9396-517: The protesters were peaceful and orderly. Johnson stated of the site, which is important to the Ku Klux Klan : "Our initial goal was to have a formation of our militia in Stone Mountain to send a message that as long as you're abolishing all these statues across the country, what about this one?" He also stated that the formation was a response to a threat by the KKK to start shooting black people at 8 pm on
9504-413: The release of the grand jury transcript and related evidence. On September 28, 2020, a grand juror filed a court motion stating that Cameron had mischaracterized the grand-jury proceedings, and was "using grand jurors as a shield to deflect accountability and responsibility" for charging decisions. Grand jurors said that Cameron only presented the grand jury with possible charges for Hankison, but not for
9612-533: The revolution's effects on the institution of slavery were felt throughout the Americas. Independence and the abolition of slavery in the former colony was followed by a successful defense of the freedoms the former slaves had won, and with the collaboration of already free people of color , of their independence from white Europeans. This had the effect of encouraging other Black communities suffering under slavery or colonialism to imagine independence and self-rule. The third period of Black nationalism arose during
9720-440: The same interview, Johnson expressed Black Nationalist views, putting forth the view that the United States should either hand the state of Texas over to African-Americans so that they may form an independent country, or allow African-Americans to depart the United States to another country that would provide land upon which to form an independent nation. In April 2021 Johnson expanded on this notion, telling The Atlantic that
9828-530: The shooting of Trayford Pellerin at the hands of police. Johnson along with other speakers gave speeches at the Parc San Souci, urging members to continue protesting. A protest attendee, not associated with the NFAC, was arrested after accidentally discharging a handgun. No one was injured. Afterwards, the group marched and left. On November 2, Kansas City -based activist Keiajah Brooks announced via Twitter that she
9936-435: The shooting of two police officers in Louisville. On July 14, 2020, over 100 protestors organized by the social justice organization Until Freedom marched to Cameron's house and held a sit-in on his front lawn, demanding that charges be brought against the officers who had shot and killed Taylor. Police officers arrested 87 protestors, including Houston Texans wide receiver Kenny Stills and Porsha Williams (a member of
10044-476: The spread of COVID-19. In a court filing in July 2020, Cameron asked a state judge to invalidate all of Beshear's COVID-19 orders, and to bar the governor from issuing or enforcing any further COVID-19 order. Cameron described his request as an attempt "to protect the rights of Kentuckians"; Beshear condemned Cameron's motion as "scary and reckless," and said it would endanger public health, lead to more deaths, and harm
10152-465: The survivors also fled to Sierra Leone . In 1816, modeled after Cuffe's work and the British resettlement of Black people in Sierra Leone , Robert Finley founded the American Colonization Society (ACS). The ACS and organizations like it aimed to encourage and support the migration of freeborn people of color and emancipated slaves to the continent of Africa . The African American community, who wanted to keep their homes, overwhelmingly opposed
10260-406: The two police officers who had shot Taylor six times and killed her. Separately, a third officer—who had not shot Taylor—was charged with wanton endangerment , but for accidentally endangering the lives of three of Taylor's neighbors by shooting into an adjacent apartment. Cameron's announcement led to widespread grief, fury, protests, chanting crowds marching in cities across the United States, and
10368-481: The various ideological perspectives within today's Black nationalism. The first period of pre-classical Black nationalism began when the first Africans were brought to the Americas as slaves through the American Revolutionary period. Many of these slaves rebelled against their captors or formed independent Black societies , beyond the reach of Europeans. The second period of Black nationalism began after
10476-540: The warfare between the communities and effectively freeing the Maroons a century before the Slavery Abolition Act came into effect in 1838. In Cuba , maroon communities formed in the mountains when escaped African slaves joined the indigenous Taínos . Before roads were built into the mountains of Puerto Rico , heavy brush kept many escaped maroons hidden in the southwestern hills where many also intermarried with
10584-465: Was America's first African benevolent society . Founders and early members included Prince Amy, Lincoln Elliot, Bristol Yamma, Zingo Stevens and Newport Gardner . It became the model for multiple similar organizations across the Northeast. In 1787, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones formed the Free African Society (FAS) of Pennsylvania. It became famous for its members' work as nurses and aides during
10692-430: Was a law clerk for Judge Gregory F. Van Tatenhove of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Kentucky for two years, from 2011 to 2013. From 2013 to 2015, for 18 months he worked for the law firm Stites & Harbison . From 2015 to 2017, Cameron served as legal counsel to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, for whom Tatenhove himself had previously worked. He was responsible for making sure that
10800-404: Was a necessary and logical progression from other leftist ideologies, as non-Black leftists could not properly assess the particular material conditions of the Black community and other colonized people: Revolutionary nationalism has not waited for Western Marxian thought to catch up with the realities of the "underdeveloped" world...The liberation of the colonies before the socialist revolution in
10908-432: Was a successful ship owner and in 1815, he attempted a settlement for freedmen on Sherbro Island . By 1811, he had transported some members of the Free African Society to Liberia . He also gained broad political support to take emigrants to Sierra Leone , and in 1816, Cuffe took 38 American Black people to Freetown . He died in 1817 before undertaking other voyages. By 1821, his Sherbro Island settlement had failed and
11016-523: Was arguably the first proponent of Black nationalism as we understand it today. Delany is credited with the Pan-African slogan of "Africa for Africans." Born as a free person of color in what is now West Virginia , and raised in Pennsylvania , Delany trained as a physician's assistant. In 1850, Delany was one of the first three Black men admitted to Harvard Medical School , but all were dismissed after
11124-653: Was born in Plano, Texas. He later lived in Alabama . He was raised in Elizabethtown, Kentucky . His mother was a professor at Elizabethtown Community and Technical College , and his father owned a local coffee shop. Cameron attended John Hardin High School in neighboring Radcliff . Cameron was awarded a scholarship sponsored by Senator Mitch McConnell to attend the University of Louisville , at which point he met McConnell for
11232-504: Was conducting a "proactive patrol". He then attempted to disable the bodycam worn by the officer. Three days later, Wallace was arrested after police found out he was hiding at an alleged NFAC-affiliated property in DeKalb County, Georgia. According to Daytona Beach Police Chief Jakari Young, four other people were at the said property, along with multiple firearms, multiple flashbangs, body armor, and ammunition. The NFAC stated Othal Wallace
11340-439: Was previously a law clerk. The court said Cameron displayed "amazing and disturbing broad overreach" by overstepping his legal authority and that Cameron lacked the authority to demand detailed information from banks as part of an investigation into their environmental lending practices, calling it a big government intrusion on private businesses that could create "an ongoing state surveillance system." Ballard Cassady, CEO of
11448-451: Was terminated from the organization on January 21, 2021. They also said they were not affiliated with the property as reported, claiming that it was owned by another ex-NFAC member. Black nationalist Black nationalism is a nationalist movement which seeks representation for Black people as a distinct national identity , especially in racialized , colonial and postcolonial societies. Its earliest proponents saw it as
11556-540: Was under protection from the NFAC after multiple alleged instances of harassment committed by officers from the Kansas City Police Department . A week prior, she went viral online shortly after a video was released of her criticizing the local city commissioners for "choosing profits over people" as well as her push for the Police Chief Rick Smith to resign. On December 3, Johnson was arrested by
11664-626: Was unfit to remain in office. The NAACP also asked the Kentucky General Assembly to remove him if he did not agree to step down on his own. The NAACP added: "The recent federal indictments of four Louisville Metro Police officers involved in the Breonna Taylor killing has highlighted, demonstrated, and proven the insufficiency of the state investigation led by the Attorney General of the Commonwealth and an absence of an understanding of
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