NATO Basic Military Requirement 1 ( NBMR-1 ) was a document produced by a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) committee in the 1950s detailing the specification of future combat aircraft designs. The requirement was for a "light weight tactical strike fighter (LWTSF)" capable of carrying both conventional and tactical nuclear weapons from rough airfields and having simple maintenance requirements.
63-458: In December 1953, NATO Supreme Command, realizing that a few, expensive and complex fighters located on few airbases were very vulnerable in case of a nuclear war, issued a specification for a new light tactical support aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers within NATO countries were invited to submit their designs for a Light Weight Strike Fighter . The competition was intended to produce a combat aircraft that
126-540: A traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the location of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution. To help avoid controlled flight into terrain ( CFIT ), aircraft use systems such as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as
189-589: A brief period using ex-French examples, the Israeli Air Force . In 1948, a swept wing version of the F-84 was created with the hope of bringing performance to the level of the F-86 . The last production F-84E was fitted with a swept tail, a new wing with 38.5 degrees of leading edge sweep and 3.5 degrees of anhedral , and a J35-A-25 engine producing 5,300 pound-force (23.58 kN) of thrust . The aircraft
252-812: A combination of technical expertise, precision, and adherence to stringent regulatory standards. The process typically involves: Avionics installation is governed by strict regulatory frameworks to ensure the safety and reliability of aircraft systems. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sets the standards for avionics installations. These include guidelines for: The field of avionics has seen rapid technological advancements in recent years, leading to more integrated and automated systems. Key trends include: Specialized avionics installation shops provide these services to aircraft owners, ensuring compliance with industry standards and
315-613: A crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident. Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument meteorological conditions , where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas. Lightning detectors like
378-409: A different canopy which opened up and back instead of sliding to the rear (a unique design, the canopy was mounted on a pair of hydraulic rams and a pivoted lever arm that allowed it to lift up and backwards while remaining almost level with the fuselage, instead of the more common simple hinged canopy), as well as airbrakes on the sides of the fuselage instead of the bottom of the aircraft. The aircraft
441-532: A front-line design was brief; it began to be moved to secondary roles as early as 1958. F-84Fs were then offered to NATO member countries and other allies, who took them up in large numbers. Operators included the Belgian Air Force , Royal Danish Air Force , French Air Force , West German Air Force , Hellenic Air Force , Italian Air Force , Royal Netherlands Air Force , Royal Norwegian Air Force , Republic of China Air Force , Turkish Air Force , and for
504-435: A key element. One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of "look-ahead" information, because it only provides altitude above terrain "look-down". In order to overcome this weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain awareness warning system ( TAWS ). Commercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as "black boxes", store flight information and audio from the cockpit . They are often recovered from an aircraft after
567-504: A periscope to give the pilot better visualization of the target, and a voice recorder to let the pilot narrate his observations. Being largely identical to the F-84F, the Thunderflash suffered from the same production delays and engine problems, delaying operational service until March 1954. The aircraft was retired from active duty in 1957, only to be reactivated in 1961, and finally retired from
630-715: A result, the F-84F was not declared operational until 12 May 1954. The second YF-84F prototype was completed with wing-root air intakes. These were not adopted for the fighter due to loss of thrust. However, this arrangement permitted placement of cameras in the nose and the design was adopted for the RF-84F Thunderflash reconnaissance version. The first YRF-84F was completed in February 1952. The aircraft retained an armament of four machine guns and could carry up to fifteen cameras. Innovations included computerized controls which adjusted camera settings for light, speed, and altitude,
693-451: A single screen, greatly simplifying navigation. Modern weather systems also include wind shear and turbulence detection and terrain and traffic warning systems. In‑plane weather avionics are especially popular in Africa , India , and other countries where air-travel is a growing market, but ground support is not as well developed. There has been a progression towards centralized control of
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#1732848953976756-682: A single seat aircraft could use it while flying. Radar , the central technology used today in aircraft navigation and air traffic control , was developed by several nations, mainly in secret, as an air defense system in the 1930s during the runup to World War II . Many modern avionics have their origins in World War ;II wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are commonplace today began as specialized systems to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Britain's 1940 decision to share its radar technology with its U.S. ally, particularly
819-420: A while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the aircraft. Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect shipping assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices ( sonobuoys ) and these are also used to determine the location of enemy submarines. Electro-optic systems include devices such as
882-709: Is also used for line of sight communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-ATC. Amplitude modulation (AM) is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF (especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication. Air navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the Earth. Avionics can use satellite navigation systems (such as GPS and WAAS ), inertial navigation system (INS), ground-based radio navigation systems (such as VOR or LORAN ), or any combination thereof. Some navigation systems such as GPS calculate
945-529: The Aerfer Sagittario 2 (Italy), Breguet Br.1001 Taon (France), Dassault Mystère XXVI (France), Fiat G.91 (Italy), Northrop N-156 (USA) and Sud-Est Baroudeur (France). Although its development is considered a factor which motivated NATO to issue the requirement, the Folland Gnat itself was not evaluated in the competition. Project selections started on 18 March 1953 and took 18 months to complete,
1008-582: The Air National Guard . The last RF-84F Thunderflash retired from the ANG in 1971. Three Hellenic Air Force RF-84Fs that were retired in 1991 were the last operational F-84s. Data from Fighters of the United States Air Force, Combat Aircraft since 1945 General characteristics Performance Armament Avionics Communications Equipment Richard Bach , who later wrote
1071-547: The Gulfstream G‑IV private jet in 1985. One of the key challenges in glass cockpits is to balance how much control is automated and how much the pilot should do manually. Generally they try to automate flight operations while keeping the pilot constantly informed. Aircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War I to fly bomber planes steady enough to hit accurate targets from 25,000 feet. When it
1134-556: The Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) initiative in Europe. The Joint Planning and Development Office put forth a roadmap for avionics in six areas: The Aircraft Electronics Association reports $ 1.73 billion avionics sales for the first three quarters of 2017 in business and general aviation , a 4.1% yearly improvement: 73.5% came from North America, forward-fit represented 42.3% while 57.7% were retrofits as
1197-505: The U.S. Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy . They required a two-seat aircraft with a second crewman who operated a telegraph key to spell out messages in Morse code . During World War I, AM voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 (see TM (triode) ) by the development of the triode vacuum tube , which were simple enough that the pilot in
1260-571: The head-up display (HUD), forward looking infrared (FLIR), infrared search and track and other passive infrared devices ( Passive infrared sensor ). These are all used to provide imagery and information to the flight crew. This imagery is used for everything from search and rescue to navigational aids and target acquisition . Electronic support measures and defensive aids systems are used extensively to gather information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against
1323-632: The magnetron vacuum tube , in the famous Tizard Mission , significantly shortened the war. Modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F-15E and the now retired F-14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics. Most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics. The civilian market has also seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems ( fly-by-wire ) and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs. The major change has been
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#17328489539761386-507: The 1970s when flight-worthy cathode-ray tube (CRT) screens began to replace electromechanical displays, gauges and instruments. A "glass" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other analog displays. Aircraft were getting progressively more displays, dials and information dashboards that eventually competed for space and pilot attention. In the 1970s, the average aircraft had more than 100 cockpit instruments and controls. Glass cockpits started to come into being with
1449-515: The ANG in 1972. Several modified Thunderflashes were used in the FICON project . The Thunderstreak suffered from the same poor takeoff performance as the straight-wing Thunderjet despite having a more powerful engine. In reality, almost 700 pounds-force (3.11 kN) or ten percent of total thrust was lost because the J65 was installed at an angle and its jet pipe was not perfectly straight (in addition to
1512-658: The Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC) and published by ARINC. Avionics installation is a critical aspect of modern aviation, ensuring that aircraft are equipped with the necessary electronic systems for safe and efficient operation. These systems encompass a wide range of functions, including communication, navigation, monitoring, flight control, and weather detection. Avionics installations are performed on all types of aircraft, from small general aviation planes to large commercial jets and military aircraft. The installation of avionics requires
1575-789: The Centre d'Essais en Vol at Brétigny-sur-Orge in France in September 1957. The Italian aircraft performed most impressively and in consequence, in January 1958, the Fiat G.91 was officially declared the competition winner. A meeting of NATO Defence Ministers was held in April 1958 at which it was agreed that the G.91 would be the first NATO lightweight strike fighter, with the Breguet Taon following in 1961. A production meeting
1638-493: The F-84F utilized press-forged wing spars and ribs. At the time, only three presses in the United States could manufacture these, and priority was given to the Boeing B-47 Stratojet bomber over the F-84. The YJ65-W-1 engine was considered obsolete and the improved J65-W-3 did not become available until 1954. When the first production F-84F finally flew on 22 November 1952, it differed from the service test aircraft. It had
1701-683: The F-84F, two Turkish Air Force F-84F Thunderstreaks shot down two Iraqi Il-28 Beagle bombers that crossed the Turkish border by mistake during a bombing operation against Iraqi Kurdish insurgents. This engagement took place on 16 August 1962. The F-84F was retired from active service with the USAF in 1964, and replaced by the North American F-100 Super Sabre . The RF-84F was replaced by the RF-101 Voodoo in USAF units, and relegated to duty in
1764-580: The G.91 prototype due to aeroelastic vibration on 20 February 1957, the French government decided to pursue development of the locally designed Dassault Étendard VI . The British government similarly ignored the competition to concentrate on Hawker Hunter production. In contrast, the Italian government preemptively ordered the G.91 for the Italian Air Force before the results of the competition were known. In
1827-509: The J65 engine continued to suffer from flameouts when flying through heavy rain or snow. As the result of the problems, the active duty phaseout began almost as soon as the F-84F entered service in 1954, and was completed by 1958. Increased tensions in Germany associated with construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 resulted in reactivation of the F-84F fleet. In 1962, the fleet was grounded due to
1890-472: The J65 had a vertically stretched fuselage, with the air intake attaining an oval cross-section. Production delays with the F-84F forced the USAF to order a number of straight-wing F-84Gs as an interim measure. Production quickly ran into problems. Although tooling commonality with the Thunderjet was supposed to be 55 percent, in reality only fifteen percent of tools could be reused. To make matters worse,
1953-695: The Orpheus was funded from the US Mutual Weapons Development Program which was a way for the US to support weapons procurement for members of the NATO alliance. Designs were submitted by manufacturers from many NATO countries, including France , Italy and the United States . Designs were required within two months of the competition and submitted to AGARD under the leadership of Theodore von Kármán . The committee assessed eight projects, including
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2016-516: The Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD ) are now available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems. Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain, and traffic onto
2079-1128: The U.S. deadline of January 1, 2020 for mandatory ADS-B out approach. The cockpit or, in larger aircraft, under the cockpit of an aircraft or in a movable nosecone, is a typical location for avionic bay equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 115 volts 400 Hz, AC. There are several major vendors of flight avionics, including The Boeing Company , Panasonic Avionics Corporation , Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King ), Universal Avionics Systems Corporation , Rockwell Collins (now Collins Aerospace), Thales Group , GE Aviation Systems , Garmin , Raytheon , Parker Hannifin , UTC Aerospace Systems (now Collins Aerospace), Selex ES (now Leonardo ), Shadin Avionics, and Avidyne Corporation . International standards for avionics equipment are prepared by
2142-559: The air intake to be modified. With these and other changes, the design was finally ready to enter production, but only a fraction of the original production systems could be used and the aircraft was effectively a new design. It finally entered service in November 1954, by which time the Sabre had also undergone many upgrades and the Thunderstreak was relegated to the fighter-bomber role. Its time as
2205-459: The aircraft. They are also used to determine the state of a threat and identify it. The avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft are interconnected using an avionics databus. Common avionics databus protocols, with their primary application, include: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak The Republic F-84F Thunderstreak is an American swept-wing turbojet -powered fighter-bomber . The RF-84F Thunderflash
2268-451: The airplane. In addition, spins in the F-84F were practically unrecoverable and ejection was the only recourse below 10,000 feet (3,000 m). Project Run In completed operational tests in November 1954 and found the aircraft to be to USAF satisfaction and considerably better than the F-84G. However, ongoing engine failures resulted in the entire fleet being grounded in early 1955. Also,
2331-527: The amount of fuel aboard. Using various sensors, such as capacitance tubes, temperature sensors, densitometers & level sensors, the FQIS computer calculates the mass of fuel remaining on board. Fuel Control and Monitoring System (FCMS) reports fuel remaining on board in a similar manner, but, by controlling pumps & valves, also manages fuel transfers around various tanks. To supplement air traffic control , most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use
2394-615: The appearance of the Republic F-105 Thunderchief , which used wing-root mounted air intakes of a similar design to those fitted on the RF-84F, the photorecon variant Thunderflash became known as the Thud's Mother . The earlier F-84A had been nicknamed the "Hog" and the F-84F "Super Hog," the F-105 becoming the "Ultra Hog". In what is probably one of the very few air-to-air engagements involving
2457-424: The backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems are designed to withstand the rigors of the battle field. UHF , VHF Tactical (30–88 MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the communications. Data links such as Link 11 , 16 , 22 and BOWMAN , JTRS and even TETRA provide the means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.). Airborne radar
2520-505: The bestseller Jonathan Livingston Seagull , was an ANG F-84F pilot who was once activated for duty in Europe. His first book, Stranger to the Ground , described in detail what it was like to fly the Thunderstreak in the course of an operational flight at night from England to France in adverse weather. F-84Fs were also used to represent North Korean MiG-15 fighters in the 1958 film version of James Salters' novel "The Hunters", because none of
2583-403: The corrosion of control rods. A total of 1,800 man hours were expended to bring each aircraft to full operational capacity. Stress corrosion eventually forced the retirement of ANG F-84Fs in 1971. On 9 March 1955, Lt. Col. Robert R. Scott , in a F-84F Thunderstreak, set a three-hour, 44-minute and 53-second record for the 2,446 miles (3,936 km) flight from Los Angeles to New York. With
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2646-611: The end, the German German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) placed the largest order based on the competition. The Luftwaffe was originally to have received fifty G.91R and twenty G.91T two-seaters from the Fiat production lines and a further 232 G.91R manufactured under licence in Germany by the Dornier , Messerschmitt and Heinkel companies ( Arbeitsgemeinschaft G.91.) The licence production was subsequently increased to 294 aircraft, bringing
2709-404: The final Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard , the ultimate derivative of the unsuccessful Étendard VI, served with French Naval Aviation ( Aéronavale ) until 2016. Avionics Avionics (a portmanteau of aviation and electronics ) are the electronic systems used on aircraft . Avionic systems include communications, navigation , the display and management of multiple systems, and
2772-688: The first result being announced on 30 June 1955. The winning projects were, in order: the Breguet Br. 1001 Taon, the Fiat G.91 and the Mystère XXVI. Prototypes of each design were ordered. The first G.91 flew on 9 August 1956 at the Caselle airfield, Turin , in the hands of Chief Test Pilot Riccardo Bignamini. Gérard Muselli flew the first Mystère XXVI, now named Étendard VI , on 15 March 1956 at Melun Villaroche Aerodrome . The Breguet Taon followed on 26 July 1957. The three rivals were sent for evaluation trials at
2835-442: The hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform. The term " avionics " was coined in 1949 by Philip J. Klass , senior editor at Aviation Week & Space Technology magazine as a portmanteau of " aviation electronics ". Radio communication
2898-611: The latest generation of airliners . Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E‑3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers. Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors. While aircraft communications provide
2961-433: The latest technologies. Notable shops include: Communications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by public-address systems and aircraft intercoms. The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe, 25 kHz elsewhere. VHF
3024-478: The multiple complex systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management. Health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers to give maintainers early warnings of parts that will need replacement. The integrated modular avionics concept proposes an integrated architecture with application software portable across an assembly of common hardware modules. It has been used in fourth generation jet fighters and
3087-420: The position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Older ground-based Navigation systems such as VOR or LORAN requires a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. The first hints of glass cockpits emerged in
3150-469: The previous versions. Production was repeatedly delayed and another run of the straight-wing Thunderjets were completed as the G models. Looking for a clear performance edge compared to the G models, the engine was upgraded to the much more powerful British Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire built in the United States as the Wright J65 . The larger engine required the fuselage to be stretched into an oval shape and
3213-484: The recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their primary method of transportation, more elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high restrictive airspaces have been invented. Avionics plays a heavy role in modernization initiatives like the Federal Aviation Administration 's (FAA) Next Generation Air Transportation System project in the United States and
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#17328489539763276-494: The straight-wing Thunderjet with over 55 percent commonality in tooling. In the meantime, the USAF, hoping for improved high-altitude performance from a more powerful engine, arranged for the British Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire turbojet engine to be built in the United States as the Wright J65 . To accommodate the larger engine, YF-84F s with a British-built Sapphire as well as production F-84Fs with
3339-470: The total to 344. The G.91R/3 equipped four newly formed Leichte Kampfgeschwader ("light attack wings"), often replacing former Republic F-84F Thunderstreak units. The G.91 was to be replaced in the 1960s by the winner of the NBMR-3 competition for VSTOL aircraft, but that did not result in a common aircraft design. In the end, the last G.91s were retired by Germany in 1982 and Italy in 1995 respectively, while
3402-467: The usual thrust losses from the long jet pipe). On a hot day, 7,500 feet (2,285 m) of runway were required for takeoff roll. A typical takeoff speed was 160 knots (185 mph, 300 km/h). Like the Thunderjet, the Thunderstreak excelled at cruise and had predictable handling characteristics within its performance envelope. Like its predecessor, it also suffered from accelerated stall pitch-up and potential resulting separation of wings from
3465-561: Was a photo reconnaissance version. The design was originally intended to be a relatively simple upgrade to the F-84 Thunderjet to make it more competitive with the F-86 Sabre , differing largely in the use of a swept-wing and tail. Given the small number of changes, it was assigned the next model letter in the F-84 series, F. The prototypes demonstrated a number of performance and handling issues, which resulted in marginal improvement over
3528-480: Was considered not ready for operational deployment due to control and stability problems. The first 275 aircraft, equipped with conventional stabilizer-elevator tailplanes, suffered from accelerated stall pitch-up and poor turning ability at combat speeds. Beginning with Block 25, the problem was improved upon by the introduction of a hydraulically powered one-piece stabilator . A number of aircraft were also retrofitted with spoilers for improved high-speed control. As
3591-570: Was designated XF-96A . It flew on 3 June 1950 with Oscar P. Haas at the controls. Although the airplane was capable of 602 knots (693 mph, 1,115 km/h), the performance gain over the F-84E was considered minor. Nonetheless, it was ordered into production in July 1950 as the F-84F Thunderstreak . The F-84 designation was retained because the fighter was expected to be a low-cost improvement of
3654-512: Was first adopted by the U.S. military , a Honeywell engineer sat in the back seat with bolt cutters to disconnect the autopilot in case of emergency. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff. The first simple commercial auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces. In helicopters , auto-stabilization
3717-403: Was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I . The first airborne radios were in zeppelins , but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by
3780-471: Was light, small and equipped with basic weapons and avionics . It should also be able to operate from dispersed airfields and require minimal ground support. The technical requirements were: The challenge of providing an engine that matched the requirements of lightness and power, reliability and ease of maintenance was solved by using the Bristol Siddeley Orpheus turbojet . The development of
3843-419: Was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include airborne early warning (AEW), anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and even weather radar ( Arinc 708 ) and ground tracking/proximity radar. The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels . While the civil market has had weather radar for
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#17328489539763906-399: Was planned for May 1958 to discuss the production of the aircraft with financial support from the United States. The Americans agreed to provide some of the finance for the French, German and Italian aircraft and pay for the planned Turkish aircraft. Given the large economic and commercial interests at stake, there was a certain amount of controversy surrounding the decision. After the loss of
3969-412: Was used in a similar way. The first systems were electromechanical. The advent of fly-by-wire and electro-actuated flight surfaces (rather than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical devices that were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical systems, the software is very strictly tested. Fuel Quantity Indication System (FQIS) monitors
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