A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat . Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia . Peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning.
111-537: Myre refers to the following: Places [ edit ] Mire or quagmire, a geographical wetland or metaphorical equivalent Myre, Andøy , a village in Andøy municipality, Nordland county, Norway Myre, Øksnes , a village in Øksnes municipality, Nordland county, Norway Myre Church , a church in Myre, Øksnes municipality, Nordland county, Norway Myre-Big Island State Park ,
222-534: A capacity of 800,000 tons per year and produces hydrodeoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel from palm oil imported from Malaysia and Indonesia. Significant amounts of palm oil exports to Europe are converted to biodiesel (as of early 2018: Indonesia: 40%, Malaysia 30%). In 2014, almost half of all the palm oil in Europe was burned as car and truck fuel. As of 2018, one-half of Europe's palm oil imports were used for biodiesel. Use of palm oil as biodiesel generates three times
333-762: A carcinogen). Reports of indigenous peoples and communities in Indonesia, indicate losing farmland and traditionally significant land due to palm oil industry expansion. In 2017, there were over 650 different land disputes between palm oil plantations and indigenous land owners. Indigenous communities also expressed concern over the loss of natural resources, such as wild rubber, reed, and adat forests (communal forests). Indigenous communities have made some ground when it comes to land disputes, either through protest or legal means. Other concerns when it comes to indigenous communities being impacted include lack of government oversight on palm oil plantations, political corruption, or
444-456: A cheap substitute for butter or hydrogenated vegetable oils in uses where solid fat is desirable, such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods. Palm oil is used in West African cuisine such as egusi soup and okra soup . Palm oil is sometimes used as a minor ingredient in calf milk replacer. Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products, and it provides
555-604: A consequence of changes in physical and chemical compositions. The change in soil strongly affects the sensitive vegetation and forest die-off is common. The short-term effect is a decrease in biodiversity but the long-term effect, since these encroachments are hard to reverse, is a loss of habitat. Poor knowledge about peatlands' sensitive hydrology and lack of nutrients often lead to failing plantations, resulting in increasing pressure on remaining peatlands. Tropical peatland vegetation varies with climate and location. Three different characterizations are mangrove woodlands present in
666-687: A greater carbon sequestration capacity. The carbon sequestration abilities of wetlands can be improved through restoration and protection strategies, but it takes several decades for these restored ecosystems to become comparable in carbon storage to peatlands and other forms of natural wetlands. Studies highlight the critical role of peatlands in biodiversity conservation and hydrological stability. These ecosystems are unique habitats for diverse species , including specific insects and amphibians , and act as natural water reservoirs , releasing water during dry periods to sustain nearby freshwater ecosystems and agriculture . The exchange of carbon between
777-505: A highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution . Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers ' (now Unilever ) " Sunlight " soap, and the American Palmolive brand. By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, which often led to oppressive labor practices, as highlighted in
888-477: A lot of palm nut species, which may become an important contributor to the agriculture of the region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric, it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries. Production is now expanding as major investment funds are purchasing plantations, because Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil. Kenya 's domestic production of edible oils covers about
999-518: A mineral soil forests, terrestrialisation of lakes, or primary peat formation on bare soils on previously glaciated areas. A peatland that is actively forming peat is called a mire . All types of mires share the common characteristic of being saturated with water, at least seasonally with actively forming peat , while having their own ecosystem. Peatlands are the largest natural carbon store on land. Covering around 3 million km globally, they sequester 0.37 gigatons (Gt) of carbon dioxide (CO 2 )
1110-424: A net cooling effect on the atmosphere. The water table position of a peatland is the main control of its carbon release to the atmosphere. When the water table rises after a rainstorm, the peat and its microbes are submerged under water inhibiting access to oxygen, reducing CO 2 release via respiration. Carbon dioxide release increases when the water table falls lower, such as during a drought, as this increases
1221-450: A peatland can be dry). A peatland that is still capable of forming new peat is called a mire , while drained and converted peatlands might still have a peat layer but are not considered mires as the formation of new peat has ceased. There are two types of mire: bog and fen . A bog is a mire that, due to its raised location relative to the surrounding landscape, obtains all its water solely from precipitation ( ombrotrophic ). A fen
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#17328560803091332-419: A quarter of global peatland area. This involves cutting drainage ditches to lower the water table with the intended purpose of enhancing the productivity of forest cover or for use as pasture or cropland. Agricultural uses for mires include the use of natural vegetation for hay crop or grazing, or the cultivation of crops on a modified surface. In addition, the commercial extraction of peat for energy production
1443-458: A quarter of the burned area. The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Indonesia, much of which is caused by palm oil production has often been described by academics as an ecocide . Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth oppose the use of palm oil biofuels, claiming that the deforestation caused by oil palm plantations is more damaging for
1554-492: A region accounts for 52.5 million metric tons (57.9 million short tons) of palm oil production, about 85% of the world total and more than 90% of global exports. Indonesia accounts for 52% of world exports. Malaysian exports total 38%. The biggest consumers of palm oil are India, the European Union, and China, with the three consuming nearly 50% of world exports. Thailand's Department of Internal Trade (DIT) usually sets
1665-581: A result of developing land use and agriculture. During the El Niño -event in 1997–1998 more than 24,400 km of peatland was lost to fires in Indonesia alone from which 10,000 km was burnt in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The output of CO 2 was estimated to 0.81–2.57 Gt, equal to 13–40% of that year's global output from fossil fuel burning. Indonesia is now considered the third-biggest contributor to global CO 2 emissions, caused primarily by these fires. With
1776-554: A severe fire can release up to 4,000 t of CO 2 /ha. Burning events in tropical peatlands are becoming more frequent due to large-scale drainage and land clearance and in the past ten years, more than 2 million hectares was burnt in Southeast Asia alone. These fires last typically for 1–3 months and release large amounts of CO 2 . Indonesia is one of the countries suffering from peatland fires, especially during years with ENSO -related drought, an increasing problem since 1982 as
1887-461: A small atmospheric carbon dioxide sink through the photosynthesis of peat vegetation, which outweighs their release of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, most mires are generally net emitters of methane and nitrous oxide. Due to the continued CO 2 sequestration over millennia, and because of the longer atmospheric lifespan of the CO 2 molecules compared with methane and nitrous oxide, peatlands have had
1998-485: A state park in Minnesota, USA, just outside the city of Albert Lea People [ edit ] Greg Myre , American journalist who reported for The New York Times from Jerusalem Odd Myre , Norwegian marketing agent Phil Myre , retired Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender See also [ edit ] Mire (disambiguation) Myhre (disambiguation) Myra (disambiguation) Topics referred to by
2109-471: A study from the Environmental, Science and Policy, Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation . In addition, palm oil and other crops provide a productive alternative for illegal crops, like coca . Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries. Ghana has
2220-477: A substantial amount of organic matter, where humic acid dominates. Humic materials are able to store very large amounts of water, making them an essential component in the peat environment, contributing to an increased amount of carbon storage due to the resulting anaerobic condition. If the peatland is dried from long-term cultivation and agricultural use, it will lower the water table and the increased aeration will subsequently release carbon. Upon extreme drying,
2331-528: A third of its annual demand, estimated at 380,000 metric tons (420,000 short tons). The rest is imported at a cost of around US$ 140 million a year, making edible oil the country's second most important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well as alleviating
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#17328560803092442-644: A threat to edible palm oil supplies. According to a 2009 study published in the Environmental Science and Policy journal, palm oil biodiesel might increase the demand for palm oil in the future, resulting in the expansion of palm oil production, and therefore an increased supply of food. One report indicated numerous allegations of human rights violations in the production of palm oil in Indonesia and Malaysia, including exposure to hazardous pesticides , child labor , rape and sexual abuse , and unsafe carrying loads. These incidents may receive no response by
2553-482: A warming climate these burnings are expected to increase in intensity and number. This is a result of a dry climate together with an extensive rice farming project, called the Mega Rice Project , started in the 1990s, which converted 1 Mha of peatlands to rice paddies . Forest and land was cleared by burning and 4000 km of channels drained the area. Drought and acidification of the lands led to bad harvest and
2664-433: A way that preserves the hydrological state of a mire, the anthropogenic use of mires' resources can avoid significant greenhouse gas emissions . However, continued drainage will result in increased release of carbon, contributing to global warming. As of 2016, it was estimated that drained peatlands account for around 10% of all greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and forestry. Palm oil has increasingly become one of
2775-563: A year. Peat soils store over 600 Gt of carbon, more than the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including forests. This substantial carbon storage represents about 30% of the world's soil carbon , underscoring their critical importance in the global carbon cycle . In their natural state, peatlands provide a range of ecosystem services , including minimising flood risk and erosion, purifying water and regulating climate. Peatlands are under threat by commercial peat harvesting, drainage and conversion for agriculture (notably palm oil in
2886-533: Is blanket bog where precipitation is very high i.e., in maritime climates inland near the coasts of the north-east and south Pacific, and the north-west and north-east Atlantic. In the sub-tropics, mires are rare and restricted to the wettest areas. Mires can be extensive in the tropics, typically underlying tropical rainforest (for example, in Kalimantan , the Congo Basin and Amazon basin ). Tropical peat formation
2997-422: Is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost and the high oxidative stability ( saturation ) of the refined product when used for frying. One source reported that humans consumed an average 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of palm oil per person in 2015. Palm oil
3108-472: Is a mixture of water, crude palm oil, and fibers from the palm fruit. A minimum degree of processing is required to obtain the oil. The mixture is first passed through a filter to remove the solids, then separated by density to remove the water. Density treatment can also act as a basic form of degumming, provided that the fruit is steamed before milling to hydrolyze the gum, at a cost of also losing some triglycerides to hydrolysis. The result of basic processing
3219-413: Is a source of Vitamin A and Vitamin E. Crude PO can be refined to remove its non-triglyceride components. RBD PO is also known as white palm oil . It can be further fractionated using the different melting points of its components. The part with a higher melting point, which crystalizes out as a solid earlier, is called palm stearin . It consists of mostly saturated fats. The remaining liquid part
3330-609: Is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of oil palms . The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel . Palm oil accounted for about 36% of global oils produced from oil crops in 2014. Palm oils are easier to stabilize and maintain quality of flavor and consistency in ultra-processed foods , so they are frequently favored by food manufacturers. Globally, humans consumed an average of 7.7 kg (17 lb) of palm oil per person in 2015. Demand has also increased for other uses, such as cosmetics and biofuels, encouraging
3441-472: Is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm its effectiveness. In 2023–2024, world production of palm oil was 77.3 million tonnes , led by Indonesia with 57% of the total. The annual production of palm oil is projected to reach 240 million tonnes by 2050. During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of
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3552-495: Is called palm olein . It is also possible to fractionate at a different point of processing, even with crude palm oil. RBD PO, or "palm shortening ", is extensively used in food manufacture. It is valued for its low polyunsaturated fat content, which offers high stability against rancidity and allows it to replace hydrogenated fats in a variety of baked and fried products. The highly saturated nature of palm oil renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions, making it
3663-454: Is called a "crude palm oil" or a " red palm oil ", referring to its intense color due to the high carotenoid content. Red palm oil is a traditional cooking oil in West Africa. The free fatty acids within provide a "bite" to the flavor. The triglyceride part is around 50% saturated fat —considerably less than palm kernel oil —and 40% monounsaturated fat and 10% polyunsaturated fat . It
3774-585: Is created through a process called transesterification . Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends. Palm oil biodiesel meets the European EN 14214 standard for biodiesels. Hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct hydrogenolysis of the fat into alkanes and propane. The world's largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the €550 million Finnish-operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore , which opened in 2011 with
3885-401: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Mire The formation of peatlands is primarily controlled by climatic conditions such as precipitation and temperature, although terrain relief is a major factor as waterlogging occurs more easily on flatter ground and in basins. Peat formation typically initiates as a paludification of
3996-411: Is especially prevalent in the tropics. Peatlands release the greenhouse gas methane which has strong global warming potential . However, subtropical wetlands have shown high CO 2 binding per mol of released methane, which is a function that counteracts global warming. Tropical peatlands are suggested to contain about 100 Gt carbon, corresponding to more than 50% of the carbon present as CO 2 in
4107-496: Is estimated to be between the equivalent of 12.4 (best case) to 76.6 t CO 2 /ha (worst case). Tropical peatland converted to palm oil plantation can remain a net source of carbon to the atmosphere after 12 years. In their natural state, peatlands are resistant to fire. Drainage of peatlands for palm oil plantations creates a dry layer of flammable peat. As peat is carbon dense, fires occurring in compromised peatlands release extreme amounts of both carbon dioxide and toxic smoke into
4218-633: Is forbidden in Chile since April 2024. The Global Peatlands Initiative is an effort made by leading experts and institutions formed in 2016 by 13 founding members at the UNFCCC COP in Marrakech, Morocco. The mission of the Initiative is to protect and conserve peatlands as the world's largest terrestrial organic carbon stock and to prevent it from being emitted into the atmosphere. Palm oil Palm oil
4329-535: Is found in the temperate, boreal and subarctic zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Mires are usually shallow in polar regions because of the slow rate of accumulation of dead organic matter, and often contain permafrost and palsas . Very large swathes of Canada, northern Europe and northern Russia are covered by boreal mires. In temperate zones mires are typically more scattered due to historical drainage and peat extraction, but can cover large areas. One example
4440-602: Is known to occur in coastal mangroves as well as in areas of high altitude. Tropical mires largely form where high precipitation is combined with poor conditions for drainage. Tropical mires account for around 11% of peatlands globally (more than half of which can be found in Southeast Asia), and are most commonly found at low altitudes, although they can also be found in mountainous regions, for example in South America, Africa and Papua New Guinea . Indonesia, particularly on
4551-427: Is located on a slope, flat, or in a depression and gets most of its water from the surrounding mineral soil or from groundwater ( minerotrophic ). Thus, while a bog is always acidic and nutrient-poor, a fen may be slightly acidic, neutral, or alkaline, and either nutrient-poor or nutrient-rich. All mires are initially fens when the peat starts to form, and may turn into bogs once the height of the peat layer reaches above
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4662-402: Is much more efficient than other oils in terms of land and water usage; however, deforestation causes more biodiversity loss than switching to other oils. The biggest global producers of palm oil are Indonesia, who produced 60% of it in 2022, followed by Malaysia, Thailand, and Nigeria. Indonesia produces biodiesel primarily from palm oil. Humans used oil palms as far back as 5,000 years. In
4773-682: Is not red), and in saturated fat content: palm mesocarp oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats, respectively. However, crude red palm oil that has been refined, neutralized, bleached and deodorized, a common commodity called RBD (refined, bleached, and deodorized) palm oil, does not contain carotenoids. Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil (often listed as "modified palm oil") whose saturation levels can reach 90%; these "modified" palm oils can become highly saturated, but are not necessarily hydrogenated . The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with
4884-530: Is oxidised by methanotrophs above the water table level. Therefore, changes in water table level influence the size of these methane production and consumption zones. Increased soil temperatures also contribute to increased seasonal methane flux. A study in Alaska found that methane may vary by as much as 300% seasonally with wetter and warmer soil conditions due to climate change. Peatlands are important for studying past climate because they are sensitive to changes in
4995-522: Is oxidised quickly and removed from the atmosphere whereas atmospheric carbon dioxide is continuously absorbed. Throughout the Holocene (the past 12,000 years), peatlands have been persistent terrestrial carbon sinks and have had a net cooling effect, sequestering 5.6 to 38 grams of carbon per square metre per year. On average, it has been estimated that today northern peatlands sequester 20 to 30 grams of carbon per square metre per year. Peatlands insulate
5106-430: Is produced when processing oil palm, including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches, can also be used to produce energy. This waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as a biofuel. Additionally, palm oil that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel. The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel. Although palm oil
5217-572: Is still produced by women for domestic use. The FAO additionally states that peasants in Benin practice agroecology . They harvest palm fruit from small farms and the palm oil is mostly used for local consumption. Cameroon had a production project underway initiated by Herakles Farms in the United States. However, the project was halted under the pressure of civil society organizations in Cameroon. Before
5328-585: Is stored in living plants, dead plants and peat, as well as converted to carbon dioxide and methane. Three main factors give wetlands the ability to sequester and store carbon: high biological productivity, high water table and low decomposition rates. Suitable meteorological and hydrological conditions are necessary to provide an abundant water source for the wetland. Fully water-saturated wetland soils allow anaerobic conditions to manifest, storing carbon but releasing methane. Wetlands make up about 5-8% of Earth's terrestrial land surface but contain about 20-30% of
5439-497: Is the world's second largest producer of palm oil, producing 19.7 million tonnes in 2023-24. In 1992, in response to concerns about deforestation , the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation's land as forest cover . As of 2023-24, Nigeria was the fifth-largest producer, with 1.5 million tonnes. Both small- and large-scale producers participate in
5550-451: Is therefore vulnerable to changes in hydrology or vegetation cover. These peatlands are mostly located in developing regions with impoverished and rapidly growing populations. These lands have become targets for commercial logging , paper pulp production and conversion to plantations through clear-cutting , drainage and burning. Drainage of tropical peatlands alters the hydrology and increases their susceptibility to fire and soil erosion, as
5661-461: Is traditionally, and still industrially, produced by milling the fruits of oil palm. Besides milling, palm oil is produced by cold-pressing the fruit of the oil palm since the 1990s. This type of artisanal palm oil is usually not further refined, so they keep the natural red color. It is bottled for use as a cooking oil , in addition to other uses such as being blended into mayonnaise and vegetable oil . The result of milling or cold-pressing
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#17328560803095772-572: Is widely practiced in Northern European countries, such as Russia, Sweden, Finland, Ireland and the Baltic states . Tropical peatlands comprise 0.25% of Earth's terrestrial land surface but store 3% of all soil and forest carbon stocks. The use of this land by humans, including draining and harvesting of tropical peat forests, results in the emission of large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In addition, fires occurring on peatland dried by
5883-462: The Indochinese tiger . Forests have been cleared in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil-palm monoculture . This has significant impacts on the local ecosystems leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss . For example, these processes have resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan . One species in particular,
5994-927: The Sumatran orangutan , has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation. In addition to environmental concerns, palm oil development in regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict . Regions with fast growing palm oil production have experienced significant violations of indigenous land rights, influxes of illegal immigrant labor and labor practices, and other alleged related human rights violations. The palm oil industry has had both positive and negative impacts on workers, indigenous peoples and residents of palm oil producing communities. Palm oil production provides employment opportunities, and has been shown to improve infrastructure , social services and reduce poverty. However, in some cases, oil palm plantations have developed lands without consultation or compensation of
6105-565: The permafrost in subarctic regions, thus delaying thawing during summer, as well as inducing the formation of permafrost. As the global climate continues to warm, wetlands could become major carbon sources as higher temperatures cause higher carbon dioxide emissions. Compared with untilled cropland, wetlands can sequester around two times the carbon. Carbon sequestration can occur in constructed wetlands as well as natural ones. Estimates of greenhouse gas fluxes from wetlands indicate that natural wetlands have lower fluxes, but man-made wetlands have
6216-664: The Central Congo Basin , covering 145,500 km and storing up to 10 kg of carbon. The total area of mires has declined globally due to drainage for agriculture, forestry and peat harvesting. For example, more than 50% of the original European mire area which is more than 300,000 km has been lost. Some of the largest losses have been in Russia, Finland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Poland and Belarus. A catalog of
6327-635: The Northern Hemisphere. Peatlands are estimated to cover around 3% of the globe's surface, although estimating the extent of their cover worldwide is difficult due to the varying accuracy and methodologies of land surveys from many countries. Mires occur wherever conditions are right for peat accumulation: largely where organic matter is constantly waterlogged. Hence the distribution of mires is dependent on topography , climate, parent material, biota and time. The type of mire—bog, fen, marsh or swamp—depends also on each of these factors. The largest accumulation of mires constitutes around 64% of global peatlands and
6438-487: The account of Abina Mansah's life. However, this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations. Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm ( Cocos nucifera ). The differences are in color (raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and
6549-476: The air. These fires add to greenhouse gas emissions while also causing thousands of deaths every year. Decreased biodiversity due to deforestation and drainage makes these ecosystem more vulnerable and less resilient to change. Homogenous ecosystems are at an increased risk to extreme climate conditions and are less likely to recover from fires. Some peatlands are being dried out by climate change . Drainage of peatlands due to climatic factors may also increase
6660-454: The atmosphere primarily through the exchange of carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide , and can be damaged by excess nitrogen from agriculture or rainwater. The sequestration of carbon dioxide takes place at the surface via the process of photosynthesis , while losses of carbon dioxide occur through living plants via autotrophic respiration and from the litter and peat via heterotrophic respiration. In their natural state, mires are
6771-463: The atmosphere. Accumulation rates of carbon during the last millennium were close to 40 g C/m /yr. Northern peatlands are associated with boreal and subarctic climates. Northern peatlands were mostly built up during the Holocene after the retreat of Pleistocene glaciers, but in contrast tropical peatlands are much older. Total northern peat carbon stocks are estimated to be 1055 Gt of carbon. Of all northern circumpolar countries, Russia has
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#17328560803096882-444: The availability of oxygen to the aerobic microbes thus accelerating peat decomposition. Levels of methane emissions also vary with the water table position and temperature. A water table near the peat surface gives the opportunity for anaerobic microorganisms to flourish. Methanogens are strictly anaerobic organisms and produce methane from organic matter in anoxic conditions below the water table level, while some of that methane
6993-687: The carbon emissions as using fossil fuel, and, for example, "biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse, not better." There are pressures for increased oil palm production from Indonesian palm-based biodiesel programs. The biodiesel currently contains a 30:70 palm oil to conventional diesel ratio (known as B30) at the gas pumps. The Indonesian government is aiming to produce 100% palm oil biodiesel (or B100) to transition out of using conventional diesel. The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands. The organic waste matter that
7104-518: The company or police, or are left unreported because victims fear retaliation from their abuser. Pesticides used by palm oil plantations include paraquat , which has been banned in Europe over links to Parkinson's disease , and glyphosate , which has been involved in a US class-action lawsuit regarding cancer (the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage but did not find evidence implicating it as
7215-406: The conversion of organics to carbon dioxide to be released in the atmosphere. Records of past human behaviour and environments can be contained within peatlands. These may take the form of human artefacts, or palaeoecological and geochemical records. Peatlands are used by humans in modern times for a range of purposes, the most dominant being agriculture and forestry, which accounts for around
7326-534: The country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil. Palm oil was introduced to British Burma (now Myanmar) in the 1920s. Beginning in the 1970s, smaller-scale palm oil plantations were developed in Tanintharyi Region , and Mon , Kayin , and Rakhine States . In 1999,
7437-484: The draining of peat bogs release even more carbon dioxide. The economic value of a tropical peatland was once derived from raw materials, such as wood, bark, resin and latex, the extraction of which did not contribute to large carbon emissions. In Southeast Asia, peatlands are drained and cleared for human use for a variety of reasons, including the production of palm oil and timber for export in primarily developing nations. This releases stored carbon dioxide and preventing
7548-523: The economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale , claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites. Other areas comprise peat land , whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact . They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops. According to recent article by National Geographic , most palm oil in Benin
7659-406: The ecosystem can undergo a state shift, turning the mire into a barren land with lower biodiversity and richness. The formation of humic acid occurs during the biogeochemical degradation of vegetation debris, animal residue and degraded segments. The loads of organic matter in the form of humic acid is a source of precursors of coal. Prematurely exposing the organic matter to the atmosphere promotes
7770-426: The emission of methane, which is a strong greenhouse gas. However, given the short "lifetime" of methane (12 years), it is often said that methane emissions are unimportant within 300 years compared to carbon sequestration in wetlands. Within that time frame or less, most wetlands become both net carbon and radiative sinks. Hence, peatlands do result in cooling of the Earth's climate over a longer time period as methane
7881-628: The environment and can reveal levels of isotopes , pollutants, macrofossils , metals from the atmosphere and pollen. For example, carbon-14 dating can reveal the age of the peat. The dredging and destruction of a peatland will release the carbon dioxide that could reveal irreplaceable information about the past climatic conditions. Many kinds of microorganisms inhabit peatlands, due to the regular supply of water and abundance of peat forming vegetation. These microorganisms include but are not limited to methanogens , algae, bacteria, zoobenthos , of which Sphagnum species are most abundant. Peat contains
7992-414: The fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell. The FAO considers palm oil (coming from the pulp) and palm kernels to be primary products. The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27% for palm oil, and from 4 to 10% for palm kernels. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature. Palm oil
8103-420: The foaming agent in nearly every soap, shampoo, or detergent. Around 70% of personal care products including soap, shampoo, makeup, and lotion, contain ingredients derived from palm oil. However, there are more than 200 different names for these palm oil ingredients and only 10% of them include the word "palm". Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel . Palm oil methyl ester
8214-434: The ground surface above the original topography. Mires can reach considerable heights above the underlying mineral soil or bedrock : peat depths of above 10 m have been commonly recorded in temperate regions (many temperate and most boreal mires were removed by ice sheets in the last Ice Age), and above 25 m in tropical regions. When the absolute decay rate of peat in the catotelm (the lower, water-saturated zone of
8325-534: The growth of palm oil plantations in tropical countries. The use of palm oil has attracted the concern of environmental and human right groups . The palm oil industry is a significant contributor to deforestation in the tropics where palms are grown and has been cited as a factor in social problems due to allegations of human rights violations among growers. In 2018, a report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature acknowledged that palm oil
8436-787: The indigenous people inhabiting the land, resulting in social conflict. The use of illegal immigrants in Malaysia has also raised concerns about working conditions within the palm oil industry. Some social initiatives use palm oil cultivation as part of poverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations, and Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority, which both support rural development. The use of palm oil in
8547-713: The industry. In much of the Niger Delta , palm oil is commonoly referred to as "red oil" (or red gold) to distinguish it from the "black oil" ( crude oil ) which dominates production. Thailand is the world's third largest producer of crude palm oil, producing 3.6 million tonnes in 2023-24. Nearly all of Thai production is consumed locally. Almost 85% of palm plantations and extraction mills are in south Thailand. At year-end 2016, 4.7 to 5.8 million rai (750,000 to 930,000 hectares; 1,900,000 to 2,300,000 acres) were planted in oil palms, employing 300,000 farmers, mostly on small landholdings of 20 rai (3.2 hectares; 7.9 acres). ASEAN as
8658-494: The inflow of groundwater (bringing in supplementary cations) is high. Generally, whenever the inputs of carbon into the soil from dead organic matter exceed the carbon outputs via organic matter decomposition , peat is formed. This occurs due to the anoxic state of water-logged peat, which slows down decomposition. Peat-forming vegetation is typically also recalcitrant (poorly decomposing) due to high lignin and low nutrient content. Topographically , accumulating peat elevates
8769-400: The islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua, has one of the largest peatlands in the world, with an area of about 24 million hectares. These peatlands play an important role in global carbon storage and have very high biodiversity. However, peatlands in Indonesia also face major threats from deforestation and forest fires. In the early 21st century, the world's largest tropical mire was found in
8880-431: The lacking of enforcement on laws meant to protect indigenous lands. In countries such as Guatemala, palm oil plantations have significant leverage within the local justice system, leading local police to disregard land claims, going as far as using force to break up protests, and even murdering local leaders. While only 5% of the world's vegetable oil farmland is used for palm plantations, palm cultivation produces 38% of
8991-448: The land selected for plantations are typically substantial carbon stores that promote biodiverse ecosystems. Palm oil plantations have replaced much of the forested peatlands in Southeast Asia. Estimates now state that 12.9 Mha or about 47% of peatlands in Southeast Asia were deforested by 2006. In their natural state, peatlands are waterlogged with high water tables making for an inefficient soil. To create viable soil for plantation,
9102-736: The largest area of peatlands, and contains the largest peatland in the world, The Great Vasyugan Mire . Nakaikemi Wetland in southwest Honshu, Japan is more than 50,000 years old and has a depth of 45 m. The Philippi Peatland in Greece has probably one of the deepest peat layers with a depth of 190 m. According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , the conservation and restoration of wetlands and peatlands has large economic potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, providing benefits for adaptation, mitigation and biodiversity. Wetlands provide an environment where organic carbon
9213-457: The late 1800s, archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE. Palm oil from Elaeis guineensis has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, used widely as a cooking oil . European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. Palm oil became
9324-571: The littoral zones and deltas of salty water, followed inland by swamp forests . These forests occur on the margin of peatlands with a palm rich flora with trees 70 m tall and 8 m in girth accompanied by ferns and epiphytes. The third, padang , from the Malay and Indonesian word for forest, consists of shrubs and tall thin trees and appear in the center of large peatlands. The diversity of woody species, like trees and shrubs, are far greater in tropical peatlands than in peatlands of other types. Peat in
9435-470: The mires in tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia are drained and cleared. The peatland forests harvested for palm oil production serve as above- and below-ground carbon stores, containing at least 42,069 million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Exploitation of this land raises many environmental concerns, namely increased greenhouse gas emissions , risk of fires and a decrease in biodiversity. Greenhouse gas emissions for palm oil planted on peatlands
9546-438: The natural environment, including deforestation , loss of natural habitats, and greenhouse gas emissions which have threatened critically endangered species , such as the orangutan and Sumatran tiger . Slash-and-burn techniques are still used to create new plantations across palm oil producing countries. From January to September 2019, 857,000 hectares of land was burned in Indonesia; peatlands accounted for more than
9657-402: The other hand, is linked to poverty and is so widespread that it also has negatively impacts these peatlands. The biotic and abiotic factors controlling Southeast Asian peatlands are interdependent. Its soil, hydrology and morphology are created by the present vegetation through the accumulation of its own organic matter, building a favorable environment for this specific vegetation. This system
9768-405: The peat layer) matches the rate of input of new peat into the catotelm, the mire will stop growing in height. Despite accounting for just 3% of Earth's land surfaces, peatlands are collectively a major carbon store containing between 500 and 700 billion tonnes of carbon. Carbon stored within peatlands equates to over half the amount of carbon found in the atmosphere . Peatlands interact with
9879-587: The peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands. Peatlands have unusual chemistry that influences, among other things, their biota and water outflow. Peat has very high cation-exchange capacity due to its high organic matter content: cations such as Ca are preferentially adsorbed onto the peat in exchange for H ions. Water passing through peat declines in nutrients and pH . Therefore, mires are typically nutrient-poor and acidic unless
9990-509: The peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover. Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on the rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term. UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia. Peat extraction
10101-436: The peatlands and the atmosphere has been of current concern globally in the field of ecology and biogeochemical studies. The drainage of peatlands for agriculture and forestry has resulted in the emission of extensive greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, most notably carbon dioxide and methane. By allowing oxygen to enter the peat column within a mire, drainage disrupts the balance between peat accumulation and decomposition, and
10212-414: The planet's 2500 Gt soil carbon stores. Peatlands contain the highest amounts of soil organic carbon of all wetland types. Wetlands can become sources of carbon, rather than sinks, as the decomposition occurring within the ecosystem emits methane. Natural peatlands do not always have a measurable cooling effect on the climate in a short time span as the cooling effects of sequestering carbon are offset by
10323-407: The presence of other tall and dense vegetation like papyrus . Like fens, swamps are typically of higher pH level and nutrient availability than bogs. Some bogs and fens can support limited shrub or tree growth on hummocks . A marsh is a type of wetland within which vegetation is rooted in mineral soil. Peatlands are found around the globe, although are at their greatest extent at high latitudes in
10434-575: The price of crude palm oil and refined palm oil Thai farmers have a relatively low yield compared to those in Malaysia and Indonesia. Thai palm oil crops yield 4–17% oil compared to around 20% in competing countries. In addition, Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm plantations are 10 times the size of Thai plantations. Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its 'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations. In spite of
10545-481: The production of biodiesel has led to concerns that the need for fuel is being placed ahead of the need for food, leading to malnutrition in developing nations. This is known as the food versus fuel debate. According to a 2008 report published in the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , palm oil was determined to be a sustainable source of both food and biofuel, and the production of palm oil biodiesel does not pose
10656-459: The project was abandoned in 1999. Similar projects in China have led to immense loss of tropical marshes and fens due to rice production. Drainage, which also increases the risk of burning, can cause additional emissions of CO 2 by 30–100 t/ha/year if the water table is lowered by only 1 m. The draining of peatlands is likely the most important and long-lasting threat to peatlands globally, but
10767-603: The project was halted, Herakles left the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil early in negotiations. The project has been controversial due to opposition from villagers and the location of the project in a sensitive region for biodiversity. In 2018, total palm oil production in Colombia reached 1.6 million metric tons (1.8 million short tons), representing some 8% of national agricultural GDP and benefiting mainly smallholders (65% of Colombia's palm oil sector). According to
10878-412: The risk of fires, presenting further risk of carbon and methane to release into the atmosphere. Due to their naturally high moisture content, pristine mires have a generally low risk of fire ignition. The drying of this waterlogged state means that the carbon-dense vegetation becomes vulnerable to fire. In addition, due to the oxygen deficient nature of the vegetation, the peat fires can smolder beneath
10989-651: The ruling military junta, the State Peace and Development Council , initiated the large-scale development of such plantations, especially in Tanintharyi, the southernmost region of Myanmar. As of 2019, over 401,814 ha of palm oil concessions have been awarded to 44 companies. 60% of the awarded concessions consist of forests and native vegetation, and some concessions overlap with national parks, including Tanintharyi and Lenya National Parks , which have seen deforestation and threaten conservation efforts for endemic species like
11100-496: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Myre . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myre&oldid=1075790343 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description
11211-602: The subsequent oxidative degradation results in the release of carbon into the atmosphere. As such, drainage of mires for agriculture transforms them from net carbon sinks to net carbon emitters. Although the emission of methane from mires has been observed to decrease following drainage, the total magnitude of emissions from peatland drainage is often greater as rates of peat accumulation are low. Peatland carbon has been described as "irrecoverable" meaning that, if lost due to drainage, it could not be recovered within time scales relevant to climate mitigation. When undertaken in such
11322-596: The surface causing incomplete combustion of the organic matter and resulting in extreme emissions events. In recent years, the occurrence of wildfires in peatlands has increased significantly worldwide particularly in the tropical regions. This can be attributed to a combination of drier weather and changes in land use which involve the drainage of water from the landscape. This resulting loss of biomass through combustion has led to significant emissions of greenhouse gasses both in tropical and boreal/temperate peatlands. Fire events are predicted to become more frequent with
11433-514: The surrounding land. A quagmire is a floating (quaking) mire, bog, or any peatland being in a stage of hydrosere or hydrarch (hydroseral) succession, resulting in pond-filling yields underfoot. Ombrotrophic types of quagmire may be called quaking bog (quivering bog). Minerotrophic types can be named with the term quagfen. Some swamps can also be peatlands (e.g.: peat swamp forest ), while marshes are generally not considered to be peatlands. Swamps are characterized by their forest canopy or
11544-476: The system from sequestering carbon again. The global distribution of tropical peatlands is concentrated in Southeast Asia where agricultural use of peatlands has been increased in recent decades. Large areas of tropical peatland have been cleared and drained for the production of food and cash crops such as palm oil. Large-scale drainage of these plantations often results in subsidence , flooding, fire and deterioration of soil quality . Small scale encroachment on
11655-842: The tropics is therefore dominated by woody material from trunks of trees and shrubs and contain little to none of the sphagnum moss that dominates in boreal peatlands. It's only partly decomposed and the surface consists of a thick layer of leaf litter. Forestry in peatlands leads to drainage and rapid carbon losses since it decreases inputs of organic matter and accelerate the decomposition. In contrast to temperate wetlands, tropical peatlands are home to several species of fish. Many new, often endemic, species has been discovered but many of them are considered threatened. The tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia only cover 0.2% of Earth's land area but CO 2 emissions are estimated to be 2 Gt per year, equal to 7% of global fossil fuel emissions. These emissions get bigger with drainage and burning of peatlands and
11766-421: The tropics) and fires, which are predicted to become more frequent with climate change . The destruction of peatlands results in release of stored greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, further exacerbating climate change. For botanists and ecologists, the term peatland is a general term for any terrain dominated by peat to a depth of at least 30 cm (12 in), even if it has been completely drained (i.e.,
11877-436: The warming and drying of the global climate. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity highlights peatlands as key ecosystems to be conserved and protected. The convention requires governments at all levels to present action plans for the conservation and management of wetland environments. Wetlands are also protected under the 1971 Ramsar Convention . Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in
11988-528: The world due to extreme weather caused by climate change , the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil. This combined with a reduced harvest in Malaysia greatly increased global prices, while reducing availability causing ripple effects in the global supply chain. On 23 May 2022, the Indonesian government reopened trading hoping to balance supplies. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, producing 44 million tonnes in 2023-24. Malaysia
12099-513: The world's largest crops. In comparison to alternatives, palm oil is considered to be among the most efficient sources of vegetable oil and biofuel , requiring only 0.26 hectares of land to produce 1 ton of oil. Palm oil has therefore become a popular cash crop in many low-income countries and has provided economic opportunities for communities. With palm oil as a leading export in countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia, many smallholders have found economic success in palm oil plantations. However,
12210-438: The world's total vegetable oil supply. In terms of oil yield, a palm plantation is 10 times more productive than soybean , sunflower or rapeseed cultivation because the palm fruit and kernel both provide usable oil. Palm oil has garnered criticism from environmentalists due to the environmental importance of where it is grown. However, it is indisputably more efficient in comparison to other oil-producing plants. In 2016, it
12321-526: Was found that palm oil farms produce around 4.17 metric tons of oil per hectare. By contrast other oils, such as sunflower, soybean, or peanut only produce 0.56, 0.39, and 0.16 metric tons respectively per hectare. Palm oil is the most sustainable vegetable oil in terms of yield, requiring one-ninth of land used by other vegetable oil crops. In the future, laboratory-grown microbes might achieve higher yields per unit of land at comparable prices. However, palm oil cultivation has been criticized for its impact on
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