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64-509: Muteness is a speech disorder in which a person lacks the ability to speak. Mute or the Mute may also refer to: Muteness Treatment or management also varies by cause, determined after a speech assessment. Treatment can sometimes restore speech. If not, a range of assistive and augmentative communication devices are available. Biological causes of mutism may stem from several different sources. One cause of muteness may be problems with

128-677: A neurodevelopmental disorder in the DSM-5 , often demonstrate language delays. Evaluation of children with language delays is necessary to determine whether the language delay was caused by another condition. Examples of such conditions are autism spectrum disorder , hearing loss and apraxia . The manner of treatment depends on the diagnosed condition. Language delays may impact expressive language, receptive language, or both. Communication disorders may impact articulation, fluency ( stuttering ) and other specified and unspecified communication disorders. For example, speech and language services may focus on

192-466: A social science . The field of behaviorism originated in 1913 by John B. Watson with his seminal work "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it.". In it, Watson argued against the field of psychology's focus on consciousness and proposed the field instead focus on the relationship between stimuli and observable behavioral responses (S-R behaviorism). The field of experimental behaviorism, which

256-419: A 1:1 teaching setting at a table using errorless discrete trial training (DTT) with a trained student therapist. The treatment was implemented at home by student therapists. Parents were trained on the teaching techniques to allow near-constant ABA instruction. During episodes of aggressive or self-stimulatory behavior, interventionists used planned ignoring, reinforcing appropriate alternative behavior, and "as

320-427: A behavior (B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates that the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts. This antecedent–behavior–consequence contingency is termed the three-term contingency. A behavior which occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence

384-612: A behavioral engineer" in 1959 was the first to utilize the concepts of behaviorism to effect meaningful change in the subject's behavior. The successful and meaningful use of behavior analysis in human subjects led researchers at the University of Kansas to start the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) in 1968. A group of researchers at the University of Washington , including Donald Baer , Sidney W. Bijou , Bill Hopkins, Jay Birnbrauer, Todd Risley , and Montrose Wolf , applied

448-567: A common method involves the use of pictures that can be attached to velcro strips to create an accessible communication modality that does not require the cognitive or fine motor skills needed to manipulate a tablet. Speech-generating devices can help people with speech deficiencies associated with medical conditions that affect speech, communication disorders that impair speech, or surgeries that have impacted speech. Speech-generating devices continue to improve in ease of use. Applied behavior analysis Applied behavior analysis ( ABA )

512-402: A high level of success during learning, prompts are given in a most-to-least sequence and faded systematically. During this process, prompts are faded as quickly as possible so that the learner does not come to depend on them and eventually behaves appropriately without prompting. The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at

576-474: A last resort...the delivery of a loud "no" or a slap on the thigh contin- gent upon the presence of the undesirable behavior." The outcome of this study indicated 47% of the experimental group (9/19) went on to lose their autism diagnosis and were described as indistinguishable from their typically developing adolescent peers. This included passing general education without assistance and forming and maintaining friendships. These gains were maintained as reported in

640-423: A particular boost has been given before the objective way of behaving happens. In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following: Task analysis is the process of breaking down a multi-step instruction into its component parts. The student is then taught to complete a task analysis through chaining. For example, a task analysis of washing hands might include the following steps: Turn on

704-436: A particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or skill. One of the primary choices that was made while showing another way of behaving is the manner by which to fade the prompts or prompts. An arrangement should be set up to fade the prompts in an organized style. For instance, blurring

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768-455: A phenomenon. Despite not being directly tied to specific dimensions, these measures provide valuable supplemental information. In applied behavior analysis (ABA), for example, percentage is a derivative measure that quantifies the ratio of specific responses to total responses, offering a nuanced understanding of behavior and assisting in evaluating progress and intervention effectiveness . Trials-to-criterion, another ABA derivative measure, tracks

832-496: A prompt being removed, where thinning refers to an increase in the time or number of responses required between reinforcements. Periodic thinning that produces a 30% decrease in reinforcement has been suggested as an efficient way to thin. Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in contingency management and token economy systems, especially when these are developed by unqualified practitioners (see professional practice of behavior analysis ). Generalization

896-407: A reason, and the cause can be understood based on the subject's learning history and current conditions. This represents a shift away from methodological behaviorism , which restricts behavior-change procedures to behaviors that are overt, and was the conceptual underpinning of behavior modification . Behavior analysts emphasize that the science of behavior must be a natural science as opposed to

960-421: A response class. Repertoire refers to the various responses available to an individual; the term may refer to responses that are relevant to a particular situation, or it may refer to everything a person can do. Operant behavior is voluntary behavior that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. Specifically, operant conditioning refers to the three-term contingency that uses stimulus control . In

1024-409: A series of articles that described a pioneering investigation of the antecedents and consequences that maintained a problem behavior, including the use of electric shock on autistic children to suppress stimming and meltdowns (described as "self-stimulatory behavior" and " tantrum behaviors" respectively) and to coerce "affectionate" behavior, and relied on the methods of errorless learning which

1088-403: A step independently. A prompt is a cue that encourages a desired response from an individual. Prompts are often categorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to least intrusive, although there is some controversy about what is considered most intrusive, those that are physically intrusive or those that are hardest prompt to fade (e.g., verbal). In order to minimize errors and ensure

1152-404: A student has successfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or school and generalize the skill in these more natural environments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization. Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If

1216-441: A training program based on teaching Bergan's skills. A similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors. Ivey would later call this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one and the skills-based approach came to dominate counselor training during 1970–90. Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career. In education, Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of

1280-436: Is a condition in which the child speaks only in certain situations or with certain people, such as close family members. Assessment is needed to rule out possible illness or other conditions and to determine treatment. Prevalence is low, but not as rare as once thought. Selective mutism should not be confused with a child who does not speak and cannot speak due to physical disabilities. It is common for symptoms to occur before

1344-413: Is a field of study that focuses on using the principles of behaviorism to make changes in a client's behavior that are relevant to their everyday life. The social validity of interventions is what differentiates ABA from experimental analysis of behavior , which focuses on basic experimental research. Behavior analysis adopts the viewpoint of radical behaviorism , which states that all behavior occurs for

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1408-496: Is a scientific discipline that utilizes the principles of learning based upon respondent and operant conditioning to make socially significant changes in a subject's behavior. ABA is the applied form of behavior analysis . The impact ABA has on meaningful behaviors is a defining feature, and what differentiates it from experimental analysis of behavior , which focuses on basic experimental research. The term applied behavior analysis has replaced behavior modification because

1472-756: Is also used in a broad range of other areas. Recent notable areas of research in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis include autism, classroom instruction with typically developing students, pediatric feeding therapy, and substance use disorders . Other applications of ABA include applied animal behavior, consumer behavior analysis , forensic behavior analysis, behavioral medicine , behavioral neuroscience , clinical behavior analysis , organizational behavior management , schoolwide positive behavior interventions and support , and contact desensitization for phobias. ABA has been successfully used in other species. Morris uses ABA to reduce feather-plucking in

1536-583: Is beginning to suggest that there are two different ABA teaching approaches to acquiring spoken language : children with higher receptive language skills respond to 2.5 – 20 hours per week of the naturalistic approach , whereas children with lower receptive language skills need 25 hours per week of discrete trial training —the structured and intensive form of ABA. A 2023 multi-site randomized control trial study of 164 participants showed similar findings. Although most research in ABA focuses on autism intervention, it

1600-414: Is called a discriminated operant. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus (S ). The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of stimulus control . More recently behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that occur prior to the circumstances for the current behavior of concern that increased the likelihood of

1664-755: Is incorporated into many applied behavior analysis (ABA) early intervention treatment programs for young children with autism and communication challenges. Treatment for absence of speech due to apraxia, involves assessment, and, based on the assessment, occupational therapy , physical therapy , and/or speech therapy . Treatment for selective mutism involves assessment, counseling, and positive supports. Treatment for absence of speech in adults who previously had speech involves assessment to determine cause, including medical and surgery related causes, followed by appropriate treatment or management. Treatment may involve counseling, or rehabilitation services, depending upon cause of loss of speech. Management involves

1728-606: Is most commonly associated with autism intervention , it has been utilized in a range of other areas, including organizational behavior management , behavior management in classrooms , and acceptance and commitment therapy . ABA is controversial, and generally rejected by the autism rights movement . Among other reasons, this is because of a history of suppressing autistic behaviors such as stimming ; using aversives , such as physical pain, or in modern forms, withholding stimuli that bring comfort; and because of its weak evidence base and failure to investigate possible harms. ABA

1792-518: Is rare as a cause for adults. Absence or paucity of speech in adults may also be associated with specific psychiatric disorders. Absence of speech in children may involve communication disorders or language delays. Communication disorders or developmental language delays may occur for several different reasons. Language delays may be associated with other developmental delays. For example, children with Down syndrome often have impaired language and speech. Children with autism , categorized as

1856-424: Is the expansion of a student's performance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acquisition of a skill. Generalization can occur across people, places, and materials used for teaching. For example, once a skill is learned in one setting, with a particular instructor, and with specific materials, the skill is taught in more general settings with more variation from the initial acquisition phase. For example, if

1920-418: Is the temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. Other characteristics of an extinction burst include an extinction-produced aggression—the occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction-induced response variability—the occurrence of novel behaviors that did not typically occur prior to

1984-629: Is the textbook Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures . In 2005, Heward et al. suggested the addition of the following five characteristics: Although there are many applications of ABA outside of autism intervention, a large majority of ABA practitioners specialize in autism , and ABA itself is often mistakenly considered synonymous with therapy for autism . Practitioners often use ABA-based techniques to teach adaptive behaviors to, or diminish challenging behaviors presented by, individuals with autism. ABA methodologies such as differential reinforcement, extinction, and task analysis, are among

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2048-492: The 1993 study, "Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment". Lovaas' work went on to be recognized by the US Surgeon General in 1999, and his research were replicated in university and private settings. The "Lovaas Method" went on to become known as early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI). In 2018, a Cochrane meta-analysis database concluded that some recent research

2112-408: The actual brief of directing a kid's hands might follow this succession: (a) supporting wrists, (b) contacting hands softly, (c) contacting lower arm or elbow, and (d) pulling out actual contact through and through. Fading guarantees that the kid does not turn out to be excessively subject to a specific brief while mastering another expertise. Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to

2176-448: The age of five. Not all children express the same symptoms. Selective mutism may occur in conjunction with autism spectrum disorder or other diagnoses. Differential diagnosis between selective mutism and language delay associated with autism or other disorders is needed to determine appropriate treatment. Adults who previously had speech and subsequently ceased talking may not speak for psychological or emotional reasons, though this

2240-406: The behavior occurring or not occurring. These conditions have been referred to variously as "Setting Event", "Establishing Operations", and "Motivating Operations" by various researchers in their publications. B. F. Skinner's classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders. Skinner's system includes: In applied behavior analysis,

2304-401: The black vulture ( Coragyps atratus ). Behavior refers to the movement of some part of an organism that changes some aspect of the environment. Often, the term behavior refers to a class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions, and in that case a response is a single instance of that behavior. If a group of responses have the same function, this group may be called

2368-403: The brain, can cause muteness. Muteness may follow brain surgery. For example, there is a spectrum of possible neurobehavioural deficits in the posterior fossa syndrome in children following cerebellar tumor surgery. When children do not speak, psychological problems or emotional stress , such as anxiety , may be involved. Children may not speak due to selective mutism . Selective mutism

2432-444: The consequence of a behavior makes it more likely for that behavior to occur in the future. Reinforcing consequences can be either positive, where something preferred is added, or negative, where something aversive is removed. Reinforcement is the key element in operant conditioning and most behavior change programs. There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future probability of behavior. Punishment occurs when

2496-566: The consequences of a behavior make the behavior less likely to occur in the future. As with reinforcement, a stimulus can be added ( positive punishment ) or removed ( negative punishment ). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g., pain), response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary fines), and restriction of freedom (as in a 'time out'). Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects. Some other potential unwanted effects include resentment over being punished, attempts to escape

2560-431: The coordination of movements of the mouth and tongue or the conscious coordination of the lungs are damaged. Neurological damage due to stroke may cause loss or impairment of speech, termed aphasia . Neurological damage or problems with development of the area of the brain involved in speech production, Broca's area , may cause muteness. Trauma or injury to Broca's area, located in the left inferior frontal cortex of

2624-729: The duration of each response or the duration of all responses during a specific timeframe, which is then recorded as a percentage. Latency specifically measures the time that elapses between the event of a stimulus and the behavior that follows. This is important in behavioral research because it quantifies how quickly an individual may respond to external stimuli , providing insights into their perceptual and cognitive processing rates. There are two measurements that are able to define temporal locus, they are response latency and interresponse time. Derivative measures are additional metrics derived from primary data, often by combining or transforming dimensional quantities to offer deeper insights into

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2688-633: The efficacy of ABA techniques on autistic and schizophrenic children. While Lovaas's work was instrumental in establishing ABA as an effective treatment of autism through the Lovaas method, his use of shock treatment has considerable ethical concerns, and the practice has been condemned by the Association for Behavior Analysis Interntational . Over the years, "behavior analysis" gradually superseded "behavior modification"; that is, from simply trying to alter problematic behavior, behavior analysts sought to understand

2752-468: The essential information to assess intervention effectiveness and make informed decisions about program modifications . Therefore, precise measurement and assessment play a pivotal role in ABA practice, guiding practitioners to enhance behavioral outcomes and drive significant change. Behavior analysts utilize a few distinct techniques to gather information. A portion of the ways of collect data information include: Latency refers to how much time after

2816-454: The extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping procedures. In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S–R formulations (If-A-then-B), and replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formulation. In other words, the relation between

2880-415: The function of that behavior, what reinforcement histories (i.e., attention seeking, escape, sensory stimulation , etc.) promote and maintain it, and how it can be replaced by successful behavior. Baer, Wolf, and Risley's 1968 article is still used as the standard description of ABA. It lists the following seven characteristics of ABA. Another resource for the characteristics of applied behavior analysis

2944-485: The latter approach suggested changing behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior-environment interactions. In contrast, ABA changes behavior by first assessing the functional relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment, a process known as a functional behavior assessment . Further, the approach seeks to develop socially acceptable alternatives for maladaptive behaviors, often through administering differential reinforcement contingencies . Although ABA

3008-438: The methods to design the direct instruction curriculum. Chaining is the process of teaching the steps of a task analysis. The two methods of chaining , forward chaining and backward chaining, differ based on what step a learner is taught to complete first. In forward chaining, the ABA practitioner teaches the learner to independently complete the first step and prompts the learner for all subsequent steps. In backward chaining,

3072-490: The most well-researched evidence-based practices for autism intervention. Early development of the techniques that would later become the Lovaas method involved use of electric shocks, scolding, and the withholding of food. By the time the children were enrolled in this study, such aversives were abandoned, and a loud "no", electric shock, or slap to the thigh were used only as a last resort to reduce aggressive and self-stimulatory behaviors . In 1965, Ivar Lovaas published

3136-436: The number of response opportunities needed to achieve a set level of performance. This metric aids behavior analysts in assessing skill acquisition and mastery, influencing decisions on program adjustments and teaching methods . Applied behavior analysis relies on meticulous measurement and impartial evaluation of observable behavior as a foundational principle. Without accurate data collection and analysis, behavior analysts lack

3200-407: The physiology involved in speech, for example, the mouth or tongue. Mutism may be due to apraxia , that is, problems with coordination of muscles involved in speech. Another cause may be a medical condition impacting the physical structures involved in speech, for example, loss of voice due to the injury, paralysis, or illness of the larynx . Anarthria is a severe form of dysarthria , in which

3264-409: The practitioner prompts all steps except the last step. As the learner begins to respond independently, the practitioner systematically removes the prompts and teaches the next step in the task analysis. Total task presentation is a variation of forward chaining where the practitioner asks the learner to perform the entire task analysis and provides prompting only when the learner is unable to complete

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3328-591: The principles of behavior analysis to treat autism, manage the behavior of children and adolescents in juvenile detention centers, and organize employees who required proper structure and management in businesses . In 1968, Baer, Bijou, Risley, Birnbrauer, Wolf, and James Sherman joined the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas, where they founded the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis . From 1960 through 1997, Ivar Lovaas researched

3392-442: The production of speech sounds for children with phonological challenges. Intervention services and treatment programs have been specifically developed for autistic children with language delays. For example, pivotal response treatment is a well-established and researched intervention that includes family participation. Mark Sundberg's verbal behavior framework is another well-established assessment and treatment modality that

3456-442: The punishment, expression of pain and negative emotions associated with it, and recognition by the punished individual between the punishment and the person delivering it. ABA therapist state that they use punishment is used infrequently as a last resort or when there is a direct threat caused by the behavior. Respondent (classical) conditioning is based on involuntary reflexes. In his experiments with dogs, Ivan Pavlov usually used

3520-400: The quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus. Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time—i.e., how many times the behavior occurs. The temporal extent refers to the duration of the response, which is the measure of time from the start to the end of the response. The duration of a response is either

3584-683: The response does not produce a reinforcer or punisher (e.g., the dog does not get food because it salivates). Extinction is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment procedures, as many punishment procedures are deemed unethical and in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst

3648-444: The salivary reflex, namely salivation (unconditioned response) following the taste of food (unconditioned stimulus). Pairing a neutral stimulus, for example, a bell (conditioned stimulus) with food caused the dog to elicit salivation (conditioned response). Thus, in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for a biologically significant consequence. Note that in respondent conditioning, unlike operant conditioning,

3712-460: The sink, put hands in the water, put soap on hands, scrub hands, rinse hands, turn off water. Task analysis has been used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing the behaviors of members of an organization (e.g., factories, offices, or hospitals). Behavioral scripts often emerge from a task analysis. Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation relationship and Thomas Kratochwill developed

3776-549: The student engages with a dog by hitting it, then they could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which they touch the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would replace the hitting behavior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of operant conditioning principles and extinction . Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer tasks. One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children,

3840-438: The three-term contingency, first, a discriminative stimulus signals to the subject that reinforcement (or, less commonly, punishment) is available. Then, the subject performs a behavior. After performing a behavior, a consequence will occur that either adds (positive) or removes (negative) something that will make the behavior either occur more (reinforcement) or less (punishment) frequently in the future. Reinforcement occurs when

3904-425: The use of appropriate assistive devices, called alternative and augmentative communications . Suitability and appropriateness of modality will depend on users' physical abilities and cognitive functioning. Augmentative and alternative communication technology ranges from elaborated software for tablets to enable complex communication with an auditory component to less technologically involved strategies. For example,

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3968-513: Was initially used by Charles Ferster to teach nonverbal children to speak. Lovaas also described how to use social (secondary) reinforcers, teach children to imitate, and what interventions (including electric shocks) may be used to reduce aggression and life-threatening self-injury. In 1987, Lovaas published the study, "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children". The experimental group in this study received an average of 40 hours per week in

4032-405: Was partially based on Waton's work, was founded by B. F. Skinner in the 1930s and 1940s. Skinner is credited with being the first person to describe the principals of operant conditioning and the philosophy of radical behaviorism, which are the foundations of Applied Behavior Analysis. Skinner was also one of the founders of the Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) in 1958, which

4096-402: Was the first academic journal focused on the publication of research in experimental behaviorism. The first experiments studying the effectiveness of behavior analysis on human subjects were published in the 1940s and 50s, including B.F. Skinner's "Baby in a box" in 1945 and Paul Fueller's 1949 "Operant conditioning of a vegetative human organism." Jack Michael 's study "The psychiatric nurse as

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