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61-659: The Mountain Village Operation Units ( 山村工作隊 , Sanson Kōsakutai ) were underground paramilitary units organized by the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) in the early 1950s. The purpose of the units was carrying out guerrilla operations against the Japanese government and the Allied Occupation of Japan inspired by Mao Zedong 's strategy of forming a base of operations in rural villages to launch

122-558: A different interpretation and defines a Rural area as " ... a road or a geographical area that is not an urban traffic area, to which the rural speed limit generally applies. " Rural economics is the study of rural economies . Rural economies include both agricultural and non-agricultural industries, so rural economics has broader concerns than agricultural economics which focus more on food systems . Rural development and finance attempt to solve larger challenges within rural economics. These economic issues are often connected to

183-428: A famine or resource depletion. These are examples of push factors . The same phenomenon can also be brought about simply because of higher wages and educational access available in urban areas; examples of pull factors . Once rural populations fall below a critical mass , the population is too small to support certain businesses, which then also leave or close, in a vicious circle . Even in non-market sectors of

244-507: A fifth of them are employed in the primary production. Since there is a policy of equal living conditions, people see rural areas as equivalent as urban areas. Village renewal is an approach to develop countryside and supports the challenges faced in the process of it. In Britain, there are various definitions of a rural area. "Rural" is defined by the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), using population data from

305-452: A harder time accessing land, education and other support systems that help with economic development. Several policies have been tested in both developing and developed economies, including rural electrification and access to other technologies such as internet, gender parity , and improved access to credit and income. In academic studies, rural poverty is often discussed in conjunction with spatial inequality , which in this context refers to

366-584: A municipality, and in municipal matters, the Federal District is treated and governs as a single municipality, city-state -like (Brasília, DF). 15% of the French population lives in rural areas, spread over 90% of the country. The government under President Emmanuel Macron launched an action plan in 2019 amid the yellow vests movement in favor of rural areas named the "Agenda Rural". Among many initiatives recommended to redynamize rural areas, energy transition

427-520: A nationwide communist revolution . These operations achieved no successes and proved a disaster for the JCP's political prospects going forward. In early post-war Japan , the newly legalized Japanese Communist Party (JCP), guided by its charismatic leader Sanzō Nosaka , pursued a strategy of fostering what Nosaka called a "lovable" ( aisareru ) public image, seeking to take advantage of the seemingly pro-labor, American -led Occupation of Japan to bring about

488-532: A peaceful socialist revolution in Japan. This strategy was highly successful at first, attracting a large following for the party within the student and labor movements, and among intellectuals . In the 1946 general election , Nosaka and four other members of the JCP were elected to the Diet , and the party received 4% of the popular vote. In the 1949 general election , the JCP had its best showing ever, receiving nearly 10% of

549-614: A policy of armed resistance against the American occupation of Japan, issuing orders to form a "liberated zone" in the rural villages across the country, particularly among peasants in mountain villages, just like the tactics successfully employed by the Chinese Communist Party in the Second Sino-Japanese War . At the 5th Party Congress of October 16, a new manifesto -like document was adopted called Present Demands of

610-651: A rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their population living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Philip Ehrensaft and Jennifer Beeman (1992). Rural metro-adjacent regions are predominantly rural census divisions which are adjacent to metropolitan centres while rural non-metro-adjacent regions are those predominantly rural census divisions which are not adjacent to metropolitan centres. Rural northern regions are predominantly rural census divisions that are found either entirely or mostly above

671-478: A strict measure used by the National Sample Survey in its 63rd round, called monthly per capita expenditure, rural expenditure accounts for 55% of total national monthly expenditure. The rural population currently accounts for one-third of the total Indian FMCG sales. In Japan, rural areas are referred to as "Inaka" which translates literally to "the countryside" or "one's native village". According to

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732-473: A wider perspective has created more focus on a broad range of development goals rather than merely creating incentive for agricultural or resource-based businesses. Rural electrification is the process of bringing electrical power to rural and remote areas. Rural communities are suffering from colossal market failures as the national grids fall short of their demand for electricity. As of 2019, 770 million people live without access to electricity – 10.2% of

793-512: Is divided into 402 administrative districts, 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts. As one of the largest agricultural producers in the European Union , more than half of Germany's territory which is almost 19 million hectares, is used for farming, and located in the rural areas. Almost 10% of people in Germany have jobs related to the agricultural, forest and fisheries sectors; approximately

854-470: Is often based upon the ownership of agricultural land , which also may provide social prestige in village cultures. The majority of rural Pakistani inhabitants livelihoods is based upon the rearing of livestock, which also comprises a significant part of Pakistan's gross domestic product. Some livestock raised by rural Pakistanis include cattle and goats. In New Zealand census areas are classified based on their degree of rurality. However, traffic law has

915-402: Is one of them. Research is being carried out to assess the impact of new projects in rural areas. In 2018, the government had launched the "Action Cœur de Ville" program to revitalize town centers across the country. 222 towns were selected as part of the five-year program. One of the program's aims is to make the towns attractive so the areas nearby can also benefit from investments. Germany

976-524: Is that, "The policy of the 5th Party Congress was not officially adopted by the party but rather was born from the breakup and subsequent takeover of the party apparatus by Tokuda's Shokanha faction and the imposition of armed struggle on us by the Soviet Union and China. The division of the party and the extreme-left adventurism orchestrated by the Shokanha were a serious mistake." How to Raise Flower Bulbs

1037-547: Is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. Rural areas in the United States , often referred to as rural America, consists of approximately 97% of the United States ' land area. An estimated 60 million people, or one in five residents (17.9% of the total U.S. population ), live in rural America. Definitions vary from different parts of

1098-507: Is the study of rural economies . Rural economies include both agricultural and non-agricultural industries, so rural economics has broader concerns than agricultural economics which focus more on food systems . Rural development and finance attempt to solve larger challenges within rural economics. These economic issues are often connected to the migration from rural areas due to lack of economic activities and rural poverty . Some interventions have been very successful in some parts of

1159-399: The 1952 general election , Japanese voters vented their ire at the JCP's violent actions by stripping the party of every single one of its 35 Diet seats, a blow from which it would take the party two decades to recover. Stunned by the backlash, the JCP gradually began to pull back from its militant line, a process facilitated by the deaths of both Tokuda and Stalin in 1953. On January 1, 1955,

1220-557: The 2017 census about 64% of Pakistanis live in rural areas. Most rural areas in Pakistan tend to be near cities and are peri-urban areas. This is due to the definition of a rural area in Pakistan being an area that does not come within an urban boundary. Rural areas in Pakistan that are near cities are considered as suburban areas or suburbs . The remote rural villagers of Pakistan commonly live in houses made of bricks, clay or mud. Socioeconomic status among rural Pakistani villagers

1281-541: The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development defines a "predominantly rural region" as having more than 50% of the population living in rural communities where a " rural community " has a population density less than 150 people per square kilometre. In Canada, the census division has been used to represent "regions" and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent "communities". Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their population living in

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1342-425: The exploitation of land-intensive natural resources such as agriculture and forestry . However, changes in global production networks and increased urbanization have changed the character of rural areas. Increasingly rural tourism , niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource extraction and agriculture as dominant economic drivers. The need for rural communities to approach development from

1403-476: The panchayat makes all the decisions. There are five people in the panchayat . The National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) defines 'rural' as follows: RBI defines rural areas as those areas with a population of less than 49,000 (tier -3 to tier-6 cities). It is generally said that the rural areas house up to 70% of India's population. Rural India contributes a large chunk to India's GDP by way of agriculture, self-employment, services, construction etc. As per

1464-512: The "peasant farmers." However Japan's highly educated, relatively wealthy land-owning farmers were generally loyal to Japan's conservative parties and had no interest in communist revolution. As a result, many of the JCP cadres sent to form the Mountain Village Operations Units ran out of food and found no place to stay, and thus soon gave up and straggled back to the cities. Instead, it was the urban guerilla squads that wreaked

1525-548: The 'countryside' or a ' village ' in India. It has a very low population density. In rural areas, agriculture is the chief source of livelihood along with fishing , cottage industries , pottery etc. Almost every Indian economic agency today has its own definition of rural India, some of which follow: According to the Planning Commission, a town with a maximum population of 15,000 is considered rural in nature. In these areas

1586-682: The Central Committee or the Politburo which he named the Interim Central Directorate. Tokuda excluded seven Central Committee members, including Kenji Miyamoto , who held dissenting points of view, and went underground. As a result of the Red Purge, Tokuda and his group went into exile in the People's Republic of China and on February 23, 1951, at the JCP's 4th Party Congress, they decided on

1647-684: The Days, However..."). On the other hand, it is thought that there were differences in the directive and goals of “Y Organization” on the one hand, the JCP’s Military Affairs Committee including the Chukaku Jieitai and Dokuritsu Yugekitai which were purely in the armed struggle, and the Mountain Village Operation Units on the other hand where armed struggle coexisted with appeals to the masses. There were also people among

1708-443: The JCP engaged in self-criticism, labeling the insurgency "adventurism of the extreme left ," and at the 6th Party Congress of June 27 1955, the JCP renounced the militant line completely, returning to its old "peaceful line" of gradually pursuing socialist revolution through peaceful, democratic means. After the 6th Party Congress, the JCP adopted a policy of not excluding any party members who, though they had made mistakes, recognized

1769-832: The Japanese Communist Party which included clauses on waging guerrilla war in the villages. Clandestine organizations were created including the Chukaku Jieitai  [ ja ] , for weapons' procurement and training, the Dokuritsu Yugekitai, for offensive guerrilla operations, and the Mountain Village Operation Units. The armed struggle was activated throughout Japan, including terrorist attacks on police officers, arson against police boxes , and bombings of trains. The JCP ordered its most expendable members, including Zengakuren student activists, artists and other bohemians , and Zainichi Koreans, to go up into

1830-578: The Occupation's urging, the Japanese state and private corporations carried out a sweeping " Red Purge ," firing tens of thousands of communists and suspected communists from their jobs in both government and the private sector . In November 1949, China's Liu Shaoqi urged spreading China's methods of armed struggle across Asia including in Japan. Liu proposed this on the basis of his talks with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin . On June 6, 1950, Douglas MacArthur ,

1891-732: The Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, ordered a purge of 24 members of JCP's Central Committee and forbade them from engaging in any political activities. That same day, at the behest of Stalin, the Soviet-led Cominform published a tract harshly criticizing the JCP's peaceful line as " opportunism " and "glorifying American imperialism " and demanding that the JCP take steps to pursue immediate violent revolution in Japan. Competition between JCP factions to win Cominform approval in

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1952-562: The United States government as to what constitutes those areas. In Brazil, there are different notions of "rural area" and "countryside". Rural areas are any place outside a municipality's urban development (buildings, streets) and it is carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside ( interior in Portuguese ) are officially defined as all municipalities outside the state/territory capital's metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul do not have any metropolitan regions, thus all of

2013-441: The command of a military , train alongside them, or have permission to use their resources, despite not actually being part of them. Under the law of war , a state may incorporate a paramilitary organization or armed agency (such as a law enforcement agency or a private volunteer militia ) into its combatant armed forces. Some countries' constitutions prohibit paramilitary organizations outside government use . Depending on

2074-401: The concept ( urban hierarchy ) can be applied more generally to many services and is explained by central place theory . Rural poverty refers to situations where people living in non-urban regions are in a state or condition of lacking the financial resources and essentials for living. It takes account of factors of rural society , rural economy , and political systems that give rise to

2135-691: The definition adopted, "paramilitaries" may include: Rural area Rural areas have unique economic and social dynamics due to their relationship with land-based industry such as agriculture , forestry , and resource extraction . Rural economics can be subject to boom and bust cycles and vulnerable to extreme weather or natural disasters, such as droughts . These dynamics alongside larger economic forces encouraging urbanization have led to significant demographic declines, called rural flight , where economic incentives encourage younger populations to go to cities for education and access to jobs, leaving older, less educated and less wealthy populations in

2196-438: The economy, providing services to smaller and more dispersed populations becomes proportionately more expensive for governments, which can lead to closures of state-funded offices and services, which further harm the rural economy. Schools are the archetypal example because they influence the decisions of parents of young children: a village or region without a school will typically lose families to larger towns that have one. But

2257-427: The eighteenth century or East Asia in the twentieth century , it can occur following the industrialization of primary industries such as agriculture , mining , fishing , and forestry —when fewer people are needed to bring the same amount of output to market—and related secondary industries (refining and processing) are consolidated. Rural exodus can also follow an ecological or human-caused catastrophe such as

2318-490: The errors of the armed struggle and party split, and intended sincerely to make an effort to support the new party line . People who refused to accept this shift by the party to peaceful accommodationism would go on to form the nucleus of a variety of Japanese New Left movements, including the Japan Communist League and the similarly named Japan Revolutionary Communist League . Currently, JCP's official evaluation

2379-470: The expense). If countries are able to overcome these obstacles and reach nationwide electrification, rural communities will be able to reap considerable amounts of economic and social development. Rural flight (also known as rural-to-urban migration, rural depopulation, or rural exodus) is the migratory pattern of people from rural areas into urban areas . It is urbanization seen from the rural perspective. In industrializing economies like Britain in

2440-538: The following lines of latitude in each province: Newfoundland and Labrador , 50th; Manitoba , 53rd; Alberta , British Columbia , Ontario , Quebec , and Saskatchewan , 54th. As well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon , Northwest Territories and Nunavut . Statistics Canada defines rural areas by their population counts. This has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or fewer inhabitants. The current definition states that census rural

2501-1005: The former faction of Kenji Miyamoto . Paramilitary A paramilitary is a military that is not a part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the use of the term "paramilitary" as far back as 1934. Though a paramilitary is, by definition, not a military , it is usually equivalent to a light infantry or special forces in terms of strength, firepower, and organizational structure. Paramilitaries use combat-capable kit/equipment (such as internal security / SWAT vehicles ), or even actual military equipment (such as long guns and armored personnel carriers ; usually military surplus resources), skills (such as battlefield medicine and bomb disposal ), and tactics (such as urban warfare and close-quarters combat ) that are compatible with their purpose, often combining them with skills from other relevant fields such as law enforcement , coast guard , or search and rescue . A paramilitary may fall under

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2562-477: The global population. Electrification typically begins in cities and towns and gradually extends to rural areas, however, this process often runs into obstacles in developing nations. Expanding the national grid is expensive and countries consistently lack the capital to grow their current infrastructure. Additionally, amortizing capital costs to reduce the unit cost of each hook-up is harder to do in lightly populated areas (yielding higher per capita share of

2623-556: The inequality between urban and rural areas. Both rural poverty and spatial inequality are global phenomena, but like poverty in general, there are higher rates of rural poverty in developing countries than in developed countries . Eradicating rural poverty through effective policies and economic growth is a continuing difficulty for the international community, as it invests in rural development . According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development , 70 percent of

2684-570: The latest census , such as the United Kingdom Census 2001 . These definitions have various grades, but the upper point is any local government area with more than 26% of its population living in a rural settlement or market town ("market town" being defined as any settlement which has permission to hold a street market ). A number of measures are in place to protect the British countryside, including green belts . Rural areas are also known as

2745-406: The marginalization and economic disadvantage found there. Rural areas, because of their small, spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers. Rural communities also face disadvantages in terms of legal and social protections, with women and marginalized communities frequently having

2806-513: The members of Mountain Village Operation Units who thought that the policy of armed struggle was an absurd idea and remained active in the Units without supporting the policy. Participation in the Units was by the appointment of the JCP Directorate which supported Kyuichi Tokuda’s Shokanha faction, and there are some who testified that service was assigned as a punishment to students who had belonged to

2867-505: The members who escaped exposure in the police crackdown holed up in the mountains and aimed to support themselves but, being neglected and unsupplied by the JCP, they naturally dissolved. The recollections of participants are published in certain New Left bulletins, and the Mountain Village Operation Units at the time of the 6th Party Congress is the backdrop for Sho Shibata's Akutagawa Award -winning 1964 novel Saredo Warera ga Hibi ("Those Were

2928-801: The migration from rural areas due to lack of economic activities and rural poverty . Some interventions have been very successful in some parts of the world, with rural electrification and rural tourism providing anchors for transforming economies in some rural areas. These challenges often create rural-urban income disparities. Rural development is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in rural areas, often relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. Often, rural regions have experienced rural poverty , poverty greater than urban or suburban economic regions due to lack of access to economic activities, and lack of investments in key infrastructure such as education. Rural development has traditionally centered on

2989-558: The most havoc, carrying out the Bloody May Day protests on May 1, 1952 and a variety of other attacks on Japanese police and U.S. military installations. The backlash to the JCP's new militant line was swift and severe. In July 1952, the Subversive Activities Prevention Law was enacted and enforced to clamp down on the JCP's attacks, with militants being rounded up, tried, and sentenced to lengthy prison terms. In

3050-438: The mountains to organize the Mountain Village Operation Units. In reality, however, the social and economic conditions in early 1950s Japan differed greatly from those found in 1940s China, and the Mountain Village Operation Units had been given an impossible task. Sent into the mountains without training, food, supplies, or weapons, they were supposed to build a revolutionary army in accordance with Maoist doctrine by radicalizing

3111-1225: The people in extreme poverty are in rural areas, most of whom are smallholders or agricultural workers whose livelihoods are heavily dependent on agriculture. These food systems are vulnerable to extreme weather, which is expected to affect agricultural systems the world over more as climate change increases . In medicine , rural health or rural medicine is the interdisciplinary study of health and health care delivery in rural environments. The concept of rural health incorporates many fields, including wilderness medicine , geography , midwifery , nursing , sociology , economics , and telehealth or telemedicine . Rural populations often experience health disparities and greater barriers in access to healthcare compared to urban populations. Globally, rural populations face increased burdens of noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, contributing to worse health outcomes and higher mortality rates. Factors contributing to these health disparities include remote geography , increased rates of health risk behaviors, lower population density , decreased health insurance coverage among

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3172-399: The police. Without achieving any of its aims, the operations of the Mountain Village Operation Units were extinguished by a police crackdown. In deference to the policy of the JCP, there were also students who had quit their studies and joined the Mountain Village Operation Units. It is said that these participants were in deep despair at the change in policy of the 6th Party Congress. Some of

3233-485: The popular vote. However, with the fall of China to the communists in 1949 and increasing Cold War tensions around the world, the United States initiated the so-called " Reverse Course " in Japan. The Occupation authorities shifted away from demilitarization and democratization to remilitarization, suppressing leftists , and strengthening Japan's conservative elements in support of American Cold War objectives in Asia . At

3294-561: The population, lack of health infrastructure, and work force demographics. People living in rural areas also tend to have less education, lower socioeconomic status , and higher rates of alcohol and smoking when compared to their urban counterparts. Additionally, the rate of poverty is higher in rural populations globally, contributing to health disparities due to an inability to access healthy foods, healthcare, and housing. Because of their unique dynamics, different academic fields have developed to study rural communities. Rural economics

3355-742: The rural areas. Slower economic development results in poorer services like healthcare, education, and infrastructure. This cycle of poverty contributes to why three quarters of the global impoverished live in rural areas according to the Food and Agricultural Organization . Some communities have successfully encouraged economic development in rural areas , with policies such as increased access to electricity or internet . Historically, development policies have focused on larger extractive industries , such as mining and forestry. However, recent approaches more focused on sustainable development take into account economic diversification in these communities. In Canada,

3416-621: The state, except its capital is officially countryside. Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and it is de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio . In the Federal District it is not applicable and there is no countryside as all of it is treated as the federal capital. Brasília is nominally the capital, but the capitality is shared through all Federal District, because Brazil de facto defines its capital as

3477-486: The terms are used interchangeably. Specific interventions and solutions will depend entirely on the needs of each region in each country, but generally speaking, regional planning at the macro level will seek to: 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville  ·  Marx ·  Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto ·  Tönnies · Veblen ·  Simmel · Durkheim ·  Addams ·  Mead · Weber ·  Du Bois ·  Mannheim · Elias Rural sociology

3538-466: The wake of this devastating "Cominform Criticism" would ultimately lead, by the summer of 1951, to a complete reversal in JCP tactics from the peaceful pursuit of revolution within democratic institutions to an embrace of immediate and violent revolution along Maoist lines. General Secretary Kyuichi Tokuda and his allies saw this situation as a perfect opportunity to take personal control of the party through an informal process that did not involve convening

3599-417: The world, with rural electrification and rural tourism providing anchors for transforming economies in some rural areas. These challenges often create rural-urban income disparities. Rural planning is an academic discipline that exists within or alongside the field of urban planning , regional planning or urbanism . The definition of these fields differs between languages and contexts. Sometimes

3660-497: Was out of touch with the real situation in Japan's countryside and they were not supported at all by the locals. The exception was the travelling clinics operated by deployed medical teams who were greeted warmly in many of the villages they visited without local doctors. However, their arts and culture-based campaign, including such thing as kamishibai attacking " feudalistic " landlords, was not accepted by locals and their newspapers and propaganda leaflets were quickly handed over to

3721-411: Was the secret publication setting out concepts relating to the party's military policy such as construction and use of Molotov cocktails. It was actually an official bulletin called Internal and External Critiques , but took the title of How to Raise Flower Bulbs in order to disguise that. It was published several times through mimeograph. The policy of establishing the Mountain Village Operation Units

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