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163-638: The Nation of Islam ( NOI ) is a religious organization founded in the United States by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930. A centralized and hierarchical organization, the NOI is committed to black nationalism and focuses its attention on the African diaspora , especially on African Americans . While describing itself as Islamic and using Islamic terminologies, its religious tenets differ substantially from orthodox Islamic traditions . Scholars of religion characterize it as

326-476: A new religious movement . The Nation teaches that there has been a succession of mortal gods, each a black man named Allah , of whom Fard Muhammad is the most recent. It claims that the first Allah created the earliest humans, the Arabic -speaking, dark-skinned Tribe of Shabazz , whose members possessed inner divinity and from whom all people of color descend. It maintains that a scientist named Yakub then created

489-700: A spaceship , the "Mother Plane" or "Mother Ship", to wipe out the white race and establish a utopia . Members worship in buildings called mosques or temples . Practitioners are expected to live disciplined lives, adhering to strict dress codes, specific dietary requirements, and patriarchal gender roles. Wallace Fard Muhammad established the Nation of Islam in Detroit . He drew on various sources, including Noble Drew Ali 's Moorish Science Temple of America , black nationalist trends like Garveyism , and black-oriented forms of Freemasonry . After Fard Muhammad disappeared in 1934,

652-697: A $ 10 fee. During the mid-20th century the Nation began encouraging the use of "X" as a surname, symbolising what they regarded as the African-Americans identity as an "ex-slave" and also as a marker for their lost ancestral name. As this results in many individuals having the same name, numbers are added before the X to differentiate members (i.e. "Charles 2X", "Charles 3X"). Wallace Fard Muhammad Wallace Fard Muhammad , also known as W. F. Muhammad , W. D. Fard , Wallace D. Fard , or Master Fard Muhammad , among other names (reportedly born February 26, c.  1877 – disappeared c.  1934 ),

815-665: A child prodigy, by the age of 18 he had learned everything that Mecca's universities had to teach him. He attracted a following but caused trouble, leading the Meccan authorities to exile him and his 59,999 followers to Pelan, the Mediterranean island of Patmos . On Pelan, the NOI claims, Yakub engaged in a selective breeding program to create the white race. This entailed breeding new children, with those who were too dark being killed at birth and their bodies being fed to wild animals or incinerated. Over two centuries, Yakub's experiments created

978-415: A community. Hence, making emergence the first step to a social movement. This discontent will act as the chain that links common people together, as they share the same experiences and feelings of oppression. "Within this stage, social movements are very preliminary and there is little to no organization. Instead this stage can be thought of as widespread discontent (Macionis, 2001; Hopper, 1950). " Emergence

1141-538: A council of ruling imams; 12 greater and 12 lesser. Each of these imams would take a turn being the ruling Allah for one cycle each. The NOI refers to these early individuals as "god-scientists". They are part of what it calls the "Original" or "Asiatic" race, a people who were divided into 13 tribes. The Nation labels these people "black", describing them as having dark skin as well as smooth, straight hair, closely resembling dark-complexioned Arabians or South Asians rather than Sub-Saharan Africans. In portraying humanity as

1304-568: A cycle in history, taking over following the death of their predecessor. The Nation regards its founder, Fard Muhammad, as the latest of these Allahs, or "God in person". He is deemed the first to have attained the same powers as that of the earliest Allah, namely the ability to return the universe to its primordial darkness and then recreate it. The Nation teaches that although this founder disappeared in 1934, he had secretly moved to Mecca in Arabia and would live for another 409 years. The Nation promotes

1467-679: A distinct eschatology drawing on the Book of Revelation . Central to its view of the apocalypse is a large spaceship, known as the Wheel, the Mother Plane, or the Mother Ship, and which members usually refer to using female pronouns. Elijah Muhammad described this as "a small human planet", claiming that it is half a mile by half a mile in diameter. The Nation teaches that this vessel is the Merkabah that appears in

1630-557: A flag based on that of Muslim-majority Turkey . The Nation has little in common with mainstream forms of Islam, regardless of whether they be Sunni , Shia , or Sufi . Mainstream Muslims generally see it as a movement that has "selectively adopted some Islamic beliefs and concepts", but which is not "truly Islamic". The scholars Jason Eric Fishman and Ana Belén Soage observed that although the Nation uses many standard Islamic terms, it gives them "profoundly different meanings" to those understood by most Muslims. The Nation's views differ from

1793-474: A group of blonde, light-skinned people, the white race. As a group of people distinct from the Original Asiatic Race, the white race are degenerate, sub-human, and bereft of divinity, being intrinsically prone to lying, violence, and brutality. Elijah Muhammad repeatedly referred to whites as "the devil". The Nation maintains that most white people are unaware of their true origins, but that such knowledge

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1956-415: A large number of people realize that there are others sharing the same value and desire for a particular social change. This third stage, bureaucratization, is when movements must become more organized, centered around a more systematic model. The set up and system for going about the construct must be more formal, with people taking on specific roles and responsibilities. "In this phase their political power

2119-775: A letter from the Mexican border. Beynon described the substance of Fard's teaching as follows: The black men in North America are not Negroes, but members of the lost tribe of Shabazz , stolen by traders from the Holy City of Mecca 379 years ago. The prophet came to America to find and to bring back to life his long lost brethren, from whom the Caucasians had taken away their language, their nation and their religion. Here in America they were living other than themselves. They must learn that they are

2282-490: A life cycle: they are created, they grow, they achieve successes or failures and eventually, they dissolve and cease to exist. They are more likely to evolve in the time and place which is friendly to the social movements: hence their evident symbiosis with the 19th century proliferation of ideas like individual rights, freedom of speech and civil disobedience. Social movements occur in liberal and authoritarian societies but in different forms. These new movements are activated by

2445-450: A method of social change from the bottom within nations . On the other hand, some social movements do not aim to make society more egalitarian, but to maintain or amplify existing power relationships. For example, scholars have described fascism as a social movement. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights

2608-415: A movement may take before proceeding into decline. Success of a movement would result in permanent changes within the society and/or government that would result in a loss of need for protest. Failure is often the result of the incapability to keep a common focus, and work towards the goal in mind. "Failure of social movements due to organizational or strategic failings is common for many organizations". Such

2771-440: A particular goal, typically a social or political one. This may be to carry out a social change , or to resist or undo one. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals , organizations , or both. Social movements have been described as "organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites". They represent

2934-543: A period of deteriorating racial tensions will culminate in the apocalypse. NOI members have repeatedly claimed that this apocalypse is imminent; Farrakhan for instance predicted that the Gulf War of 1990 would spark it, while Tynetta Muhammad predicted it would occur in 2001. According to Nation teaching, the apocalypse will come when the Mother Plane appears above the Earth and transports the righteous to live upon it. It will then use

3097-421: A physical manifestation of Allah, Wallace denounced Fard as a human who "had his own designs on the black community". The group discontinued the annual Savior's Day celebration in honor of Fard. Wallace brought the group closer to mainstream Sunni Islam, restyling their 'temples' as mosques while 'ministers' became known as imams. Wallace rejected black nationalism in favor of Islamic anti-racism and disbanded

3260-481: A plurality of individuals, groups and/or organizations, engaged in a political or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity" Sociologist Charles Tilly defines social movements as a series of contentious performances, displays and campaigns by which ordinary people make collective claims on others. For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people's participation in public politics. He argues that there are three major elements to

3423-475: A rational and strategic effort by ordinary people to change society or politics. The form of the resources shapes the activities of the movement (e.g., access to a TV station will result in the extensive use TV media). Movements develop in contingent opportunity structures that influence their efforts to mobilize; and each movement's response to the opportunity structures depends on the movement's organization and resources Critics of this theory argue that there

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3586-532: A religious dimension. It regards African Americans, or black people more broadly, as the Chosen People, espousing a cosmology in which the black race is superior and the white race inferior. We want our people in America whose parents or grandparents are descendants from slaves to be allowed to establish a separate state or territory of their own, either on this continent or elsewhere. We believe that our former slave masters are obligated to provide such land and that

3749-612: A responsible and ideal husband, who would later become the face and leader of the Nation Of Islam. From interviews with approximately two hundred families who followed Fard, Beynon concluded: Although the prophet lived in Detroit from July 4, 1930 until June 30, 1934, virtually nothing is known about him, save that he 'came from the East' and that he 'called' the Negroes of North America to enter

3912-462: A room with a makeshift altar. In the audience were twelve adult witnesses and Harris's wife and children. Smith, who believed he was being inducted into the Allah Temple of Islam, was asked if he would sacrifice his life for Islam, and Smith nodded his assent. Harris then stabbed Smith in the chest, and proceeded to bludgeon him to death with an axle rod . After neighbors called the police, Harris

4075-420: A route would result in the gradual breaking up of an organization, and out of the stages of movement. Co-optation results when people or groups are integrated and shift away from the social movement's initial concerns and values. Repression is another example, when the movement is slowly wiped away from the public platform through means of an outside force, usually being the government. The last route into declining

4238-440: A severe chastisement until we did submit. And that He was able to force the whole world into submission to his will. He said that he loved us (the so-called Negroes), his lost and found, so well that he would eat rattlesnakes to free us if necessary, for he has power over all things. Part of Fard's teaching also involved admiration for Japan. Fard was known to teach from what outsiders described as "The Bible of Islam"; In 2023,

4401-499: A shared normative orientation; (3.) the sharing of a concern for change of the status quo and (4.) the occurrence of moments of practical action that are at least subjectively connected together across time addressing this concern for change. Thus we define a social movement as a form of political association between persons who have at least a minimal sense of themselves as connected to others in common purpose and who come together across an extended period of time to effect social change in

4564-405: A social movement as "a set of opinions and beliefs in a population which represents preferences for changing some elements of the social structure and/or reward distribution of a society." According to Paul van Seeters and Paul James , defining a social movement entails a few minimal conditions of 'coming together': (1.) the formation of some kind of collective identity; (2.) the development of

4727-413: A social movement to improve (or defend) their conditions. There are two significant problems with this theory. First, since most people feel deprived at one level or another almost all the time, the theory has a hard time explaining why the groups that form social movements do when other people are also deprived. Second, the reasoning behind this theory is circular – often the only evidence for deprivation

4890-441: A social movement to organize it must have strong leadership and sufficient resources. Political opportunity refers to the receptivity or vulnerability of the existing political system to challenge. This vulnerability can be the result of any of the following (or a combination thereof): One of the advantages of the political process theory is that it addresses the issue of timing or emergence of social movements. Some groups may have

5053-411: A social movement: Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as "collective challenges [to elites, authorities, other groups or cultural codes] by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities." He specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups . The sociologists John McCarthy and Mayer Zald define as

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5216-476: A textbook and taught in the style of a Southern Baptist preacher. Beynon writes that "With growing prestige over a constantly increasing group, [Fard] became bolder in his denunciation of white people and began to attack the teachings of the Bible in such a way as to shock his audience and bring them to an emotional crisis." Fard taught a form of black exceptionalism and self-pride to poor Southern blacks during

5379-404: A wish for change in social customs, ethics and values which oppress certain communities. The birth of a social movement needs what sociologist Neil Smelser calls an initiating event : a particular, individual event that will begin a chain reaction of events in the given society leading to the creation of a social movement. The root of this event must be the result of some common discontent among

5542-402: Is "completely divorced" from mainstream Islam. The two differ in regard to the fundamental ontological divide between humanity and God, as well as God's nature, which for mainstream Muslims is deemed eternal and non-anthropomorphic. Also conflicting with mainstream Islam is the NOI's claim that there is no afterlife; Elijah Muhammad wrote that "when you are dead, you are DEAD". Notions of Heaven ,

5705-435: Is a new religious movement , a black nationalist religion, and an African-American religion. As well as being characterised as an "ethno-religious movement", it has been labelled a social movement . Scholars of religion have also highlighted commonalities between the NOI and UFO religions , with extraterrestrial spaceships featuring in the group's ideas about the forthcoming end of the world. Although they have both employed

5868-558: Is a highly centralized, hierarchical, and authoritarian movement. Unlike practitioners of Rastafari , a contemporary of the NOI which shares many of its key concerns, members of the Nation do not exhibit considerable variation in their approach to the religion, displaying a high degree of uniformity and conformity among followers. Despite this, not all members have believed all of its teachings implicitly, and there are also members who have privately broken its rules on personal behavior and lifestyle. Having no specific holy text of its own,

6031-568: Is a man and we just cannot make Him other than a man, lest we make Him an inferior one; for man's intelligence has no equal in other than man. His wisdom is infinite; capable of accomplishing anything that His brain can conceive. Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Black Man , 1965 The sociologist of religion David V. Barrett noted that the Nation's theology is "very distinct" and "extremely detailed". The Nation provides conflicting statements about its theology; although it professes commitment to

6194-467: Is bound to fail." Activists too often make the mistake of trying to convince people to address their issues. A mobilization strategy aimed at large-scale change often begins with action a small issue that concerns many people. Popovic also argues that a social movement has little chance of growing if it relies on boring speeches and the usual placard waving marches. He argues for creating movements that people actually want to join. OTPOR! succeeded because it

6357-432: Is going mainstream, which is generally perceived as an overall success. This is when goals of the movement are taken into society as a part of daily life, making it a 'social norm.' For example, birth control is still a greatly debated topic on a government level, but it has been accepted into social life as a common thing that exists. It is important to recognize that though movements may disintegrate and cease to be active,

6520-504: Is greater than in the previous stages in that they may have more regular access to political elites." In this stage, one organization may take over another one in order to obtain a greater status and formal alliance. This 'taking over' may be a positive or negative move for organizations. Ella Baker, an activist who played a role in the NAACP, had proposed to the students of the student movement to start their own organization. This becomes known as

6683-467: Is held by senior white Freemasons . The NOI's ideas regarding white people have been labelled both racist and racialist . According to the Nation's teachings, Yakub's newly created white race sowed discord among the black race, and thus were exiled to live in the caves of "West Asia", meaning Europe. In this narrative, it was in Europe that the white race engaged in bestiality and degenerated, resulting in

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6846-470: Is held in honor of Fard's birth. In 2020, it attracted an estimated 14,000 participants. With regard to Elijah Muhammad , Beynon's article stated: "From among the larger group of Muslims there has sprung recently an even more militant branch than the Nation of Islam itself. This new movement, known as the Temple People. To Mr. Fard alone do they offer prayer and sacrifice. Since Mr. Fard has been deified,

7009-576: Is our brother, our central responsibility is with the Black man here in the wilderness of North America". Rather than treating Africa as a homeland, the Nation's origin myths present Mecca as the original home of African Americans; Africa itself is often portrayed in Nation writings as the least desirable of the Original Asiatic lands. The NOI's teachings on gender issues are conservative and patriarchal, promoting strict gender roles for men and women. Emphasis

7172-404: Is placed on the family unit; the Nation maintains that the security of the black family unit is ensured when its members adhere to their gendered duties and responsibilities. Seeking to restore black manhood, the Nation expresses great concern regarding the emasculation of black men, attributing this attitude to the failure of black men to prevent the sexual assault of black women by white men over

7335-405: Is prior to any sort of organized resistance to the condition of society. Jonathan Christiansen's essay on the four stages of social movement dissects further into the historical sociology of how each stage affects the whole movement. The Civil Rights Movement's early stages are an example of the public display of protest that is utilized to push a movement into the next stages. "It was not until after

7498-473: Is that for most, neither insiders to a movement nor outsiders apply consistent labels or even descriptive phrases. Unless there is a single leader who does, or a formal system of membership agreements, activists will typically use diverse labels and descriptive phrases that require scholars to discern when they are referring to the same or similar ideas, declare similar goals, adopt similar programs of action, and use similar methods. There can be great differences in

7661-638: Is the social movement. If deprivation is claimed to be the cause but the only evidence for such is the movement, the reasoning is circular. Mass society theory argues that social movements are made up of individuals in large societies who feel insignificant or socially detached. Social movements, according to this theory, provide a sense of empowerment and belonging that the movement members would otherwise not have. Very little support has been found for this theory. Aho (1990), in his study of Idaho Christian Patriotism, did not find that members of that movement were more likely to have been socially detached. In fact,

7824-685: Is too much of an emphasis on resources, especially financial resources. Some movements are effective without an influx of money and are more dependent upon the movement members for time and labor (e.g., the civil rights movement in the U.S.). Political process theory is similar to resource mobilization in many regards, but tends to emphasize a different component of social structure that is important for social movement development: political opportunities . Political process theory argues that there are three vital components for movement formation: insurgent consciousness, organizational strength, and political opportunities. Insurgent consciousness refers back to

7987-416: The Book of Ezekiel (1: 4–28). It teaches that Allah and many of his scientists live in a magnificent city on the Mother Plane, from which they monitor humanity; Farrakhan has claimed that Elijah Muhammad never died but is resident aboard this ship. The Nation teaches that there are also smaller vessels, "baby planes", docked inside the Mother Ship and that these travel to visit Earth. The Nation teaches that

8150-800: The Five Pillars , which are typically seen as central to Islam; its claims that Allah (God) takes anthropomorphic form and that there is no afterlife differ fundamentally from Muslim teaching. Unlike most forms of Islam, the NOI does not hold that the 6th/7th century Arabian religious leader Muhammad was the final nor the most important messenger of God, instead treating its first two leaders, Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad, as being more important. From mainstream Islamic perspectives, its teachings are heretical , with its theology being shirk ( blasphemy ). Accordingly, some scholars of religion have characterised it as "quasi-Islamic", or referred to it as "Fardian Islam", "pseudo-Islam", or "nontraditional Islam". God

8313-810: The Great Northward Migration at a time when old ideas of scientific racism were prevalent. He advocated that community members establish and own their own businesses, eat healthy, raise families, and refrain from drugs and alcohol. In 1938, sociologist Erdmann Doane Beynon published in the American Journal of Sociology a firsthand account of several interviews he conducted with followers of Fard in Michigan. From those interviews, Beynon wrote that Fard lived and taught in Detroit from 1930 to 1934. Fard taught his followers to reject surnames inherited from white slaveowners . As part of their initiation into

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8476-455: The Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca; Elijah Muhammad himself did so three times. The Nation requests that, as a declaration of mental emancipation, new members change any names inherited from slave-owners who owned their ancestors. This is not considered necessary if the new member has a name that is already African in origin. In the NOI's early years, Wallace Fard Muhammad bestowed new names on followers for

8639-556: The House of Commons to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act, which the government refused to do. Soon, large riots broke out across London and embassies and Catholic owned businesses were attacked by angry mobs. Other political movements that emerged in the late 18th century included the British abolitionist movement against slavery (becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and

8802-524: The Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval characterised by the growing maturity of the use of social movements and special-interest associations. Chartism was the first mass movement of the growing working-class in the world. It campaigned for political reform between 1838 and 1848 with the People's Charter of 1838 as its manifesto – this called for universal suffrage and the implementation of

8965-459: The Second World War entered a period of radical reform and change. In the post-war period, feminism , gay rights movement , peace movement , civil rights movement , anti-nuclear movement and environmental movement emerged, often dubbed the new social movements They led, among other things, to the formation of green parties and organisations influenced by the new left . Some find in

9128-775: The industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems . Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over

9291-592: The monotheistic idea of a single God, its discourse refers to multiple gods, meaning that it can be interpreted as polytheistic . In the NOI's view, each Allah (god) is not an incorporeal spiritual entity but a flesh-and-blood person. These Allahs are anthropomorphic, taking the form of black men, which was the shape that the first Allah consciously adopted. In Nation teaching, the Allahs are not immortal, instead typically living for around 200 to 300 years. They have varying abilities and degrees of power, with each ruling over

9454-608: The secret ballot , amongst other things. The term "social movements" was introduced in 1848 by the German Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book Socialist and Communist Movements since the Third French Revolution (1848) in which he introduced the term "social movement" into scholarly discussions – actually depicting in this way political movements fighting for the social rights understood as welfare rights . The labor movement and socialist movement of

9617-407: The worker class . Many other social movements were created at universities , where the process of mass education brought many people together. With the development of communication technologies, creation and activities of social movements became easier – from printed pamphlets circulating in the 18th century coffeehouses to newspapers and Internet , all those tools became important factors in

9780-537: The "Nation of Islam". Following the rapid increase in membership, he instituted a formal organizational structure. He established the Moslem Girls' Training and General Civilization Class , where women were taught how to keep their houses, clean, and cook. The men of the organization were drilled by captains and referred to as the Fruit of Islam . The entire movement was placed under a Minister of Islam. On September 25, Fard

9943-501: The Advancement of Colored People , regarding them as "Uncle Tom Negroes". In contrast to King's calls for non-violent protest against segregation and racial violence, the Nation maintained that self-defence it was a moral obligation for African Americans. The NOI called for the creation of a separate and sovereign African-American nation-state in the southern part of what is currently the United States, with Elijah Muhammad stipulating that

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10106-457: The Allah Temple of Islam but vehemently denied any teaching of human sacrifice , were examined by psychiatrist David Clark, who recommended they be committed for further observation . A judge agreed, and both Fard and Ugan Ali were placed in straitjackets and confined in padded cells . With Fard and Ugan Ali still in custody five days after the murder, Elijah Muhammad, at the time known as Elijah Karriem, led over two hundred members into

10269-532: The Bible or Qur'an. In the late 1950s, Elijah Muhammad published a prayer manual outlining how his followers should pray five times a day; this involved an ablution beforehand. He stipulated that these prayers should be in English, although commented that in future he would explain how to do so in Arabic. In later articles, he explained that his followers should face towards Mecca as they pray, symbolising their journey toward

10432-472: The Blackman in America , which is a compilation of articles written for newspapers throughout the early part of his ministry, Muhammad summarized what Fard taught him as follows: He began teaching us the knowledge of ourselves, of God and the devil, of the measurement of the earth, of other planets, and of the civilization of some of the planets other than earth. ... He measured and weighed the earth and its water;

10595-688: The Brown v. the Board of Education Supreme court decision (1954), which outlawed segregation in Public schools, and following the arrest of Rosa Parks in Montgomery, Alabama for refusing to comply with segregation laws on city buses by giving up her bus seat to a white man, that the American Civil Rights Movement would proceed to the next stage – coalescence." The impact of a black woman, Rosa Parks , riding in

10758-699: The Conference Members by the name of Mr. Osman Sharrieff said to the Eleven Members of the Conference: 'The Lost-Found Nation of Islam will not return to their original Land unless they, first, have a thorough Knowledge of their own.' So they sent a Messenger to them of their own. Now, the Messenger and his Laborers worked day and night for the last three and one-half years, and their accomplishments are approximately twenty-five thousand... In this lesson, Fard places

10921-464: The Criminal Insane ; he died there on June 19, 1935. Faced with criminal charges, Ugan Ali was released after promising to help disband the Allah Temple of Islam, while Fard agreed to forever leave Detroit as a condition of release. On December 7, 1932, police put Fard on a train bound for Chicago. The Allah Temple of Islam was officially disbanded, though soon replaced by a new organization called

11084-608: The Devils, and Present Time of our Delivery from the Devils by OUR SAVIOUR (ALLAH). PRAISE HIS HOLY NAME! There is No God but ALLAH. How that ALLAH would separate us from the Devils and, then destroy them; and Change us into a New and Perfect People; and Fill the Earth with FREEDOM, JUSTICE and EQUALITY as it was filled with wickedness; and Making we, the Poor Lost-Founds, the Perfect RULERS. In Elijah Muhammad's 1965 book Message to

11247-576: The Islamic New Deal that if she cut off the heads of four devils—devils being unrighteous people—she would win a free trip to Mecca and a button of some sort." She further testified that she had been taught that Caucasians would be destroyed in the year 1934 by poison gas and fighting. Elijah Muhammad was found guilty for his role in establishing an unlicensed school, but he was released on probation. Amid rumors that police wanted both Fard and his chief aide dead, Elijah Muhammad fled for Chicago, and Fard

11410-659: The Muslims to Copy, the Minister, Elijah Muhammad's Answers? The past History shows that the ALMIGHTY ALLAH sends Prophets and Apostles for the people's Guide and Example, and through them HIS Mystery was Revealed. And those who follow the Apostle would see the Light." Fard wrote several lessons which are read and committed to memory by members of the Nation of Islam. Some of the lessons are in

11573-569: The NOI also seeks to reclaim what it regards as the historic Muslim identity of the African-American people, with the group's second leader, Elijah Muhammad , stating that "Islam is the natural religion of the Black Nation." The Nation sees itself as part of the Islamic world, and Islamic elements in its practices include the use of the Arabic language, prayers five times a day, and the adoption of

11736-426: The NOI is black nationalist, and has sometimes been perceived as a Black Power political organization. Scholar of religion Mattias Gardell commented that the idea of black unity is "at the very core of the NOI ideology". It seeks to empower black people by giving them a positive self-identity, purging ideas of white superiority, and black inferiority, from its followers. In the Nation's view, black liberation requires

11899-473: The Nation appointed its first woman minister, Ava Muhammad, as head of Mosque Number 15 in Georgia. In various cases, Nation women still play an active role in their communities, sometimes challenging established gender norms in the organization. The NOI strictly enforces heterosexual monogamy among its members and encourages sexual abstinence prior to marriage. Members seeking to court another are expected to inform

12062-406: The Nation claims, are a lie used by white Christians to keep black people docile. Instead Elijah Muhammad taught that there is no spiritual realm beyond the material universe, although he also stated that humans could develop parapsychological powers and that he personally had telepathic abilities. The Nation teaches that in the beginning there was nothing but darkness. Then, 76 trillion years ago,

12225-600: The Nation draws influence from both Christianity and Islam while offering profoundly different interpretations of their central scriptures, the Bible and the Quran . Having arising from within a Christian-majority society, the Nation denigrates Christianity, presenting it as a tool of white supremacy . For the group—whose members are commonly called "Black Muslims"—their Islamic identity offers an alternative to mainstream, Christian-dominated American culture. In describing itself as Islamic

12388-443: The Nation labels "white man's religion". The group deems Christianity a tool of white supremacy used to subjugate black people, and expresses the belief that the oppressed (African Americans) and the oppressors (European Americans) cannot share the same god. The Nation claims that in their enslaved state, black people have lost their morality by engaging in sinful behaviour such as fornication and drinking alcohol, something encouraged by

12551-426: The Nation of Islam. Former leader Ugan Ali was replaced by Elijah Muhammad. In January 1933, Fard snuck back into Detroit and held secret meetings with followers. Fard left Detroit for a few weeks but returned to Detroit and resumed preaching on street corners. Recognized by police, he was arrested on May 25, booked, and photographed . He was again released and ordered to depart the city. Fard renamed his community

12714-402: The Nation of Islam. His very name is uncertain. He was known usually as Mr. Wali Farrad or Mr. W. D. Fard, though he used also the following names: Professor Ford, Mr. Farrad Mohammed, Mr. F. Mohammed Ali. One of the few survivors who heard his first addresses states that he himself said: 'My name is W. D. Fard and I came from the Holy City of Mecca . More about myself I will not tell you yet, for

12877-611: The Nation's leadership would be theocratic , authoritarian, and totalitarian . Unlike the Garveyites and Rastafari who strongly emphasise links between the African diaspora and Africa itself, Elijah Muhammad and the NOI instead focused their attention on the African diaspora in the Americas, rejecting a specifically Pan-African ideology. Elijah Muhammad stated that "where as the Black man in Africa

13040-671: The Nation. During the 1960s, the NOI's places of worship were called both temples and mosques. As well as serving a religious function, these can also be used as a community center, bank, school, and child-care facility. Those attending meetings will sometimes be searched by members of the Fruit of Islam or the Muslim Girl's Training group, who look both for weapons and for objects like cosmetics and cigarettes which are disapproved of. After this, attendees are seen to their seats, usually rows of benches. The sexes are segregated during worship; women on

13203-461: The Original Asiatic Race. Elijah Muhammad for instance referred to "black, brown, yellow [and] red" people as collectively constituting "black mankind", which he then juxtaposed against the "white race". The NOI promotes a story called the myth of Yakub , which received its fullest exposition in Elijah Muhammad's 1965 book Message to the Blackman . In this narrative, Yakub was a black scientist;

13366-637: The President of the Protestant Association in 1779. The Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill , Erasmus Middleton , and John Rippon . Gordon was an articulate propagandist and he inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule . The situation deteriorated rapidly, and in 1780, after a meeting of the Protestant Association, its members subsequently marched on

13529-539: The SNCC, the student nonviolent coordinating committee (1960s). The students could have joined forces with the SCLC, an already existing organization, but that would have been a poor bureaucratizing decision, as they would succumb to old ideologies. New and progressive ideas that challenge prior authority are crucial to social change. The declining of a social movement does not necessarily mean failure. There are multiple routes in which

13692-409: The Temple People raise the former Minister of Islam, now a resident of Chicago." This reference is in conflict with the first hand accounts of Malcolm X, such as his appearance in 1963 on the news program City Desk. Malcolm X states that Elijah Mohammed was neither Allah nor a Prophet, but rather that he was a Messenger. Elijah Muhammad, who led the Nation of Islam from 1934 to 1975, heard Fard teach for

13855-491: The U.S. should financially support this new country for 20 to 25 years. This is presented as compensation for the unpaid labor of their enslaved ancestors. Farrakhan has also suggested that the countries of Africa should set aside land on that continent for the African diaspora, characterising this as a reparation for the complicity of West African states in the Atlantic slave trade. Gardell suggested that any nation-state formed under

14018-640: The United States, the Nation of Islam has also established a presence abroad, with membership open only to people of color. In 2007 it was estimated to have 50,000 members. The Nation has proven to be particularly successful at converting prisoners. The Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League have characterized it as a black supremacist hate group that promotes racism towards white people , antisemitism , and anti-LGBT rhetoric . Muslim critics accuse it of promoting teachings that are not authentically Islamic. The Nation of Islam (NOI)

14181-403: The aggregation of resources by social movement entrepreneurs and movement organizations, who use these resources to turn collective dissent in to political pressure. Members are recruited through networks; commitment is maintained by building a collective identity, and through interpersonal relationships. Resource Mobilization Theory views social movement activity as "politics by other means":

14344-490: The apocalypse, "Peace, joy and happiness will have no end." Those living in this perfect society will eat the finest food and wear clothes of silk interwoven with gold. The NOI has taught that the white ruling elite are aware of this forthcoming apocalypse and that the U.S. exploration of space and the Strategic Defense Initiative are futile attempts to protect themselves against the Mother Plane. Ideologically,

14507-689: The area around Mecca in the Arabian peninsula. The Nation calls this region "East Asia", reflecting its belief that Asia and Africa were once a single continent. It was because they moved into the "jungles of East Asia" (i.e. Africa), Elijah Muhammad claimed, that members of this Original Asiatic Race developed Afro-textured hair . The Nation teaches that the Original Race were Muslims by their intrinsic nature, but that many created heretical deviations such as Hinduism ; some of those who broke Islamic rules were exiled from Asia-Africa to North America, where they became

14670-538: The area must be fertile and minerally rich. Elijah Muhammad, 1965 The Nation is black separatist , rejecting the integration of the black and white races. This racial separatism was at odds with the mainstream civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Nation was critical of African-American activists who promoted racial integration, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and the National Association for

14833-562: The authorities to concede to the movement's demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared unconstitutional, and press freedom was extended to the coverage of Parliamentary debates . A much larger movement of anti-Catholic protest was triggered by the Papists Act 1778 , which eliminated a number of the penalties and disabilities endured by Roman Catholics in England , and formed around Lord George Gordon , who became

14996-422: The baby planes to bury bombs beneath the Earth's surface, which will explode and wipe out the old, white-dominated order. The Earth's atmosphere will then burn for 390 years and spend another 610 cooling down. Once the Earth has returned to a habitable state, the ruling Allah will return the righteous to live on the planet, in a new black paradise. In his book The Supreme Wisdom , Elijah Muhammad claimed that after

15159-704: The book was identified as Deliverance! by Joseph Franklin Rutherford , of the Watch Tower Society or Jehovah's Witnesses . Both during and after his life, some charged that Fard was a conman who used mystery and charisma to swindle poor blacks, selling them new Muslim names and stirring up racial animosity by copying selected elements of other Muslim religious sects and ideologies that fit his racial supremacist narrative. Fard influenced his successor Elijah Muhammad , Malcolm X , and many other Black nationalist thinkers. The annual Saviours' Day event

15322-480: The captain of their local Fruit of Islam or Muslim Girls Training branch about their intentions. Men found to have beaten their wives are temporarily suspended from Nation membership. Divorce is frowned upon, but not forbidden. Children are expected to study hard, avoid street culture, and respect their elders. Farrakhan was initially highly critical of rap music because he argued it promoted sexual promiscuity . Although Nation members are allowed to marry non-members,

15485-407: The centuries. It expects men to be providers for their family. Women are expected to act as caretakers of the household and the children, and are cautioned from forming friendships with men. Outsiders often perceive the Nation's women as being victims of male oppression and control. The group's leadership is overwhelmingly male, although several women rose to senior positions during the 1990s; in 1998

15648-412: The communist regimes of Eastern Europe , developed after trade union activist Anna Walentynowicz was fired from work. The South African shack dwellers' movement Abahlali baseMjondolo grew out of a road blockade in response to the sudden selling off of a small piece of land promised for housing to a developer. Such an event is also described as a volcanic model – a social movement is often created after

15811-424: The community contributed money and rented a hall to serve as a temple where meetings were conducted. The Quran was soon introduced as the most authoritative of all texts for the study of the faith. Fard prepared texts that served as authoritative manuals of the faith and were memorized verbatim by his followers. According to Beynon, Fard's followers grew to approximately eight thousand, and "[w]ithin three years

15974-459: The continent's native population. For the Nation, everyone not of West European genetic origin is a descendant of the Original Asiatic Race. In contrast to understandings of race held by most Americans, for the Nation, "black" does not simply mean those of Sub-Saharan African genetic descent, but all people of color , including Asians, North Africans, and Native Americans. Even some Eastern Europeans, such as Albanians , are considered descendants of

16137-482: The court building and staged a protest on the main floor. The police spent a full day expelling the protesters. On November 25, Harris was arraigned on charges of first-degree murder ; he pleaded guilty, but his bizarre courtroom behavior convinced witnesses of his insanity . On December 6, three psychiatrists testified that Harris was legally insane , and he was committed to the Ionia State Hospital for

16300-413: The creation of the first Allah, rather than a product of evolution , the Nation endorses a form of creationism and believes dinosaurs to be a hoax created by white scientists. According to Nation teaching, one of the god-scientists was a renegade and, 66 trillion years ago, tried to destroy the Earth with explosives. The resulting explosion forced a chunk of the Earth's mass into orbit, where it became

16463-457: The date of his arrival. Acting as a door-to-door salesman , Fard spread his religious teachings throughout Detroit, and within three years grew the movement to a reported 25,000 members in Detroit, Chicago, and other cities. Fard began by selling Oriental silks door-to-door in Detroit's black section. Fard visited the homes of black families who had recently migrated to Detroit from the rural South. Fard told black residents that his silks were

16626-417: The devil In the Nation's teachings, the ruling Allah permitted the white race to rule the Earth for 6000 years, a period that came to an end in 1914. It claims that the ruling Allahs allowed this so that the black race would discover humanity's inner potential for evil and learn how to defeat it, thus enabling them to realize their inner divine capacity and become gods. The NOI claims that over 6000 years ago

16789-500: The emergence of apes and monkeys. To help the whites develop, the ruling Allah then sent prophets to them, the first of whom was Musa ( Moses ), who taught the whites to cook and wear clothes. According to the Nation, Jesus was also a prophet sent to try and civilise the white race. The group reject the Christian belief that Jesus was a unique manifestation of God, that he was the Messiah ,

16952-410: The end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global social movement, the anti-globalization movement . Some social movement scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization, the potential for the emergence of new type of social movement is latent—they make the analogy to national movements of the past to describe what has been termed a global citizens movement . Several key processes lie behind

17115-461: The first Allah willed himself into being, taking 6 million years to form into his desired appearance; that of a black man. In this account, this god chose his skin color in reference to the blackness from which he had emerged. The first Allah then created the Sun and the planets, as well as fellow black gods, who lived predominantly on the Earth but also on Mars . Of these, the first Allah and 23 others formed

17278-610: The first time in 1931. Elijah Muhammad stated that he and Fard became inseparable between 1931 and 1934, where he felt "jailed almost" due to the amount of time that they spent together with Fard teaching him day and night. A handwritten lesson written by Fard states: Twelve Leaders of Islam from all over the Planet have conferred in the Root of Civilization concerning the Lost-Found Nation of Islam – must return to their original Land. One of

17441-458: The form of questions asked by Fard to Elijah Muhammad. One such lesson concludes with the text: "This Lesson No. 2 was given by our Prophet, W.D. Fard, which contains 40 questions answered by Elijah Muhammad, one of the lost found in the wilderness of North America February 20th, 1934." While some scholars argue that Fard's divinity was a creation of Elijah Muhammad, Morrow points out that Fard did identify himself as God to Detroit police and that

17604-536: The group stipulates that they should only marry other black people, claiming that sex with white women emasculates black men. Birth control methods are criticised as an attempt by the white establishment to lower the black birthrate, although Farrakhan stated support for abortion in cases of rape, incest or where the woman's life is endangered by the pregnancy. Same-sex relationships are condemned as immoral; Farrakhan for instance banned gay men from his Million Man March , bringing accusations of homophobia against him and

17767-502: The group, Fard bestowed new Muslim names upon his converts. He taught that this practice restored their original and true identities, while also revealing the lies that cloaked the origins of the so-called Asiatic Blackman. Such names included Muhammad, Ali, Karriem, and Fardan. Scholars note that new names had previously been given by Noble Drew Ali of the Moorish Science Temple of America , who assigned surnames El and Bey;

17930-618: The group. Following Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975, his son Warith Deen Mohammed took over the organization, moving it towards Sunni Islam and renaming it the World Community of Islam in the West . Members seeking to retain Elijah Muhammad's teachings re-established the Nation of Islam under Louis Farrakhan 's leadership in 1977. Farrakhan has continued to develop the NOI's beliefs, for instance by drawing connections with Dianetics , and expanding its economic and agricultural operations. Based in

18093-556: The growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes – people began chanting "Wilkes and Liberty" in the streets. After a later period of exile brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity , Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex , where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the King's Bench Prison on 10 May 1768, a mass movement of support emerged, with large demonstrations in

18256-608: The growth of the social movements. Finally, the spread of democracy and political rights like the freedom of speech made the creation and functioning of social movements much easier. Nascent social movements often fail to achieve their objectives because they fail to mobilize sufficient numbers of people. Srdja Popovic, author of Blueprint for Revolution, and spokesperson for OTPOR! , says that movements succeed when they address issues that people actually care about. "It's unrealistic to expect people to care about more than what they already care about, and any attempt to make them do so

18419-501: The history of social movements. Urbanization led to larger settlements, where people of similar goals could find each other, gather and organize. This facilitated social interaction between scores of people, and it was in urban areas that those early social movements first appeared. Similarly, the process of industrialization which gathered large masses of workers in the same region explains why many of those early social movements addressed matters such as economic wellbeing, important to

18582-427: The history of the moon; the history of the two nations, black and white, that dominate the earth. He gave the exact birth of the white race; the name of their God who made them and how; and the end of their time, the judgment, how it will begin and end. ... He taught us the truth of how we were made 'slaves' and how we are kept in slavery by the 'slave-masters' children. He declared the doom of America, for her evils to us

18745-516: The idea that "God is man and man is God, that God has a presence inside human individuals," with Elijah Muhammad espousing the view that "all Muslims are Allahs". Accordingly, the NOI teaches that the black race, in its natural state, is divine, a "nation of Gods". According to the NOI's teachings, "knowledge of self" is key for black people to realize their inner divinity. The NOI thus teaches that by following its teachings, its adherents can recognize their inner godliness. The Nation of Islam's theology

18908-438: The ideas of deprivation and grievances. The idea is that certain members of society feel like they are being mistreated or that somehow the system is unjust. The insurgent consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that movement members (or potential movement members) feel and serves as the motivation for movement organization. Organizational strength falls inline with resource-mobilization theory, arguing that in order for

19071-605: The impact that they have in the social realm is success in its own way. It sparks the notion in new generations that the possibility to organize and make change is there. Sociologists have developed several theories related to social movements [Kendall, 2005]. Some of the better-known approaches are outlined below. Chronologically they include: Deprivation theory argues that social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good(s) or resource(s). According to this approach, individuals who are lacking some good, service, or comfort are more likely to organize

19234-428: The insurgent consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because political opportunities are closed, they will not have any success. The theory, then, argues that all three of these components are important. Critics of the political process theory and resource-mobilization theory point out that neither theory discusses movement culture to any great degree. This has presented culture theorists an opportunity to expound on

19397-486: The key to joining the movement was having a friend or associate who was a member of the movement. Social Strain Theory, is the "proposal that pressure derived from social factors, such as lack of income or lack of quality education, drives individuals to commit crime." This theory is also subject to circular reasoning as it incorporates, at least in part, deprivation theory and relies upon it, and social/structural strain for

19560-656: The late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social movements, leading to the formation of communist and social democratic parties and organisations. These tendencies were seen in poorer countries as pressure for reform continued, for example in Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1905 and of 1917 , resulting in the collapse of the Czarist regime around the end of the First World War . In 1945, Britain after victory in

19723-495: The leadership of the NOI was assumed by Elijah Muhammad . He expanded the NOI's teachings and declared Fard Muhammad to be the latest Allah. Attracting growing attention in the late 1950s and 1960s, the NOI's influence expanded through high-profile members such as the black nationalist activist Malcolm X and the boxer Muhammad Ali . Deeming it a threat to domestic security, the Federal Bureau of Investigation worked to undermine

19886-399: The mass petition march. However, the movement was careful not to cross the line into open rebellion; it tried to rectify the faults in governance through appeals to existing legal precedents and was conceived of as an extra-Parliamentary form of agitation to arrive at a consensual and constitutional arrangement. The force and influence of this social movement on the streets of London compelled

20049-467: The militaristic "Fruit of Islam" group. In a 2000s interview alongside Louis Farrakhan, Warith Deen Muhammad described breaking with his father Elijah Muhammad over the issue of Fard's divinity: I differed with my father, and I didn't want to differ with him. In fact I never differed with him directly, he was told that someone heard me saying something different. So he called me to question me about it. And I told him that I could more readily believe he

20212-626: The moon. One of the 13 tribes was trapped on the moon, where they died due to lack of water. The Nation also maintains that 15,000 years ago, the god-scientists wrote down knowledge of the future in a text, the Mother Book, parts of which have passed down in the Torah , Gospels , and Quran. Of the twelve tribes that remained on Earth, the most resilient was the Tribe of Shabazz; they settled in Egypt's Nile Valley and

20375-420: The movement and its aims later came to use the term, and it is the term by which they are known to history. Caution must always be exercised in any discussion of amorphous phenomena such as movements to distinguish between the views of insiders and outsiders, supporters and antagonists, each of whom may have their own purposes and agendas in characterization or mischaracterization of it. Social movements have

20538-446: The name of Allah (God) or one of His divine attributes. He also taught us to give up all evil doings and practices and do righteousness or be destroyed from the face of the earth. He taught us that the slave-masters had taught us to eat the wrong food and that this is the cause of our sickness and short span of life. He declared that he would heal us and set us in heaven at once, if we would submit to Him. Otherwise he would chastise us with

20701-417: The name of that purpose. The early growth of social movements was connected to broad economic and political changes in England in the mid-18th century, including political representation , market capitalization , and proletarianization . The first mass social movement catalyzed around the controversial political figure John Wilkes . As editor of the paper The North Briton , Wilkes vigorously attacked

20864-566: The new administration of Lord Bute and the peace terms that the new government accepted at the 1763 Treaty of Paris at the end of the Seven Years' War . Charged with seditious libel , Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant , a move that Wilkes denounced as unlawful – the Lord Chief Justice eventually ruled in Wilkes favour. As a result of this, Wilkes became a figurehead to

21027-459: The number of converts obtained in Detroit at 25,000, and he describes a "Messenger" sent to the "Lost-Found Nation of Islam" who is "of their own". Nation of Islam theology states that this "Messenger" is Elijah Muhammad. Fard wrote, in his instructions to the leaders of his community, that they should "copy the Answers of Lesson of Minister Elijah Muhammad." He went on to state: "Why is Stress made to

21190-474: The original people, noblest of the nations of the earth. The Caucasians are the colored people, since they have lost their original color. The original people must regain their religion, which is Islam, their language, which is Arabic, and their culture, which is astronomy and higher mathematics, especially calculus. They must live according to the law of Allah, avoiding all meat of 'poison animals', hogs, ducks, geese, possums and catfish. They must give up completely

21353-558: The past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent . Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. Mario Diani argues that nearly all definitions share three criteria: "a network of informal interactions between

21516-519: The pattern of dropouts and alerted authorities. On March 27, the Detroit Free Press proclaimed that the " voodoo cult" had been revived, and the city initiated legal action against the school. The school was raided by police, and Elijah Muhammad was arrested. Press reported that at trial, fifteen-year-old Sally Ali, who had attended the University of Islam, testified that she had been taught "in

21679-432: The police killing of black youths, that they flooded black-majority areas with drugs, and that they created AIDS to exterminate black people. The Nation is also openly critical of U.S. aggression towards countries with non-white and Muslim majorities, and in keeping with its ethos has adopted an anti-Zionist position regarding Israel. The NOI is millenarian , believing that humanity is living in end times . It propounds

21842-708: The prophet not only began the movement but organized it so well that he himself was able to recede into the background, appearing almost never to his followers during the final months of his residence in Detroit." During this time, Clara Poole, later renamed Clara Muhammad, was introduced to W.D. Fard and his teachings through her in-laws . His teachings gave Poole hope and presented her life with new possibilities and new memories. After one of Fard's services, during which he asked if someone knew Elijah Poole, Clara, introduced him and his teachings to her husband, Elijah Poole, who later became Elijah Muhammad. His guidance and teachings eventually changed and reformed Elijah Poole into

22005-479: The psychiatrists who examined Fard after his arrest reported that Fard had delusions of Godhood. Morrow argues that under Elijah Muhammad, the doctrine of whites as devils was emphasized, while Fard had taught that "devils" were unbelievers of all races. Upon Elijah Muhammad's death in February 1975, his son Wallace (later Warith) was named successor and instituted sweeping reforms. Where his father has regarded Fard as

22168-533: The relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics. Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame. Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature ) and increased mobility of labor due to

22331-448: The restoration of black greatness. The most important date in the Nation's year is February 26, Saviours' Day , which is believed to be the birthday of Fard Muhammad. This is the date on which the organization holds its annual national convention. Under Farrakhan, the Nation has also held a second Saviour's Day each year, on October 7, to mark the birth of Elijah Muhammad. In addition to marking festivals, NOI members are encouraged to make

22494-446: The right and men on the left. The tone of Nation services is sombre and quiet. Services typically begin with the statement " As-salamu alaykum " (peace be upon you), with the congregation responding "Wa 'alaikum As-salam" (and also upon you). Meetings at the mosque are both opened and closed with prayers, and the Nation's "national anthem" may be played. A lecture will be provided by one of the ministers, who may also read verses from either

22657-406: The role of exceptional levels of deprivation, grievance, or social strain in motivating mass protest—Resource Mobilization perspectives hold "that there is always enough discontent in any society to supply the grass-roots support for a movement if the movement is effectively organized and has at its disposal the power and resources of some established elite group" Movement emergence is contingent upon

22820-450: The same kind that their ancestors in Mecca used and claimed to be a traveler from that land. When offered food, Fard reportedly ate what was provided but would advise residents to avoid certain foods, promising health benefits would follow. At his suggestion, he came back to teach the residents, along with guests. In the early stage of his ministry, Fard used the Bible as his textbook, since it

22983-438: The same name, the Nation of Islam has represented two distinct organizations: the first group was established by Wallace Fard Muhammad in the 1930s and existed until 1975, after which the second organization was created by Louis Farrakhan in the late 1970s. Farrakhan's second Nation bears some distinct differences from its predecessor, reflecting how the Nation's teachings have shifted over the course of its history. The Nation

23146-492: The second great petition drive of 1806), and possibly the upheaval surrounding the French and American Revolutions . In the opinion of Eugene Black (1963), "...association made possible the extension of the politically effective public. Modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century [and] the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it. From 1815, Britain after victory in

23309-633: The streets under the slogan "No liberty, no King." Stripped of the right to sit in Parliament, Wilkes became an Alderman of London in 1769, and an activist group called the Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights began aggressively promoting his policies. This was the first ever sustained social movement: it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and

23472-508: The term "slave name" was used by the MSTA. After Fard's disappearance, Elijah Muhammad continued the practice of giving new Muslim names to converts to the Nation of Islam and added the letter X, symbolizing the unknown, instead of a name. Beynon's interviewees told him that reports of Fard's message spread throughout the black community. Attendance at the house meetings grew until the listeners were divided into groups and taught in shifts. Finally,

23635-420: The time has not yet come. I am your brother. You have not yet seen me in my royal robes.' Legends soon sprang up about this mysterious personality. In 1933, he began signing his name "W. F. Muhammad", which stood for Wallace Fard Muhammad, and used it on several lessons written in 1933 and 1934. On November 20, 1932, Robert Harris (who had received the name Robert Karriem from Fard) escorted James J. Smith into

23798-832: The underlying motivation of social movement activism. However, social movement activism is, like in the case of deprivation theory, often the only indication that there was strain or deprivation. Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources in social movement development and success. Resources are understood here to include: knowledge, money, media, labor, solidarity, legitimacy, and internal and external support from power elite. The theory argues that social movements develop when individuals with grievances are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action.The emphasis on resources offers an explanation why some discontented/deprived individuals are able to organize while others are not. In contrast to earlier collective behavior perspectives on social movements—which emphasized

23961-494: The use of stimulants, especially liquor. They must clean themselves up – both their bodies and their houses. If in this way they obeyed Allah, he would take them back to the Paradise from which they had been stolen – the Holy City of Mecca. Fard's lessons themselves state that the "traders" referenced by Beynon came to Africa, not Mecca. Modern Nation of Islam theology is based upon the belief that Fard's teaching of Elijah Muhammad

24124-428: The way that is done, to recognize who is and who is not a member or an allied group : It is often outsiders rather than insiders that apply the identifying labels for a movement, which the insiders then may or may not adopt and use to self-identify. For example, the label for the levellers political movement in 17th-century England was applied to them by their antagonists, as a term of disparagement . Yet admirers of

24287-473: The white race. The whites lacked inner divinity, and were intrinsically violent; they overthrew the Tribe of Shabazz and achieved global dominance. Setting itself against the white-dominated society of the United States, the NOI campaigns for the creation of an independent African-American nation-state, and calls for African Americans to be economically self-sufficient and separatist . A millenarian tradition, it maintains that Fard Muhammad will soon return aboard

24450-402: The whites began to dominate the world, achieving this using treacherous tactics that the Nation calls "tricknology". As part of this, the whites enslaved the Tribe of Shabazz, shipping many of them to the Americas through the Atlantic slave trade. The NOI claims that most enslaved blacks forgot their true names, their Arabic language, and their Muslim identity, instead embracing Christianity, which

24613-439: The whites-only section of the bus (although she was not acting alone or spontaneously—typically activist leaders lay the groundwork behind the scenes of interventions designed to spark a movement). This leads into coalesce because now the common dilemma and source of oppression is being pinned down, allowing for organizations and appearance to the public eye to be established. The Polish Solidarity movement, which eventually toppled

24776-437: The whites. In making thus argument, the NOI equates the United States with the city of Babylon as presented in the Bible. The Nation thus understands the modern subjugation of African Americans as part of an ancient white conspiracy. The group interprets many of the problems facing African Americans in this light; Farrakhan for instance claimed that the white establishment encouraged a black gang culture to provide an excuse for

24939-485: Was God, than I could believe that his teacher was God. Because his teacher was a white man and he said white people were devils. My mother, when I was leaving the home one day, after my father had insisted that I accept God the way he presented God, or I was gonna be cut off from all communication, he told me he knew it would hurt me to know that I wouldn't be able to see my mother. He said - "you won't be able to talk to your mother or see her". So... I didn't change, and as I

25102-562: Was arrested in Chicago by local police while addressing an audience in a rented hall. The following morning, the Chicago judge dismissed charges of disturbing the peace and released Fard. Fard made a third surreptitious visit to Detroit, this time preaching that the white man would soon be destroyed by poison bombs. Fard established the University of Islam, where school-aged children were taught, as an alternative to Detroit public schools. By January 1934, local truant officers had noticed

25265-486: Was arrested. Under questioning, he confessed to the murder: "I had to kill somebody, I could not forsake my gods". Police initiated a manhunt for Fard and another leader, Ugan Ali, who were arrested and questioned. Harris was deemed insane and committed to a mental hospital . "The society cannot be blamed for anything he did," Ali was quoted as saying in the Detroit News . Fard and Ugan Ali, who acknowledged leadership of

25428-797: Was fulfillment of scripture regarding God's teaching of an Apostle, where Fard is described as "God in Person", the " Messiah ", and the " Mahdi ". Fard wrote the following for his followers: [T]he LESSONS that OUR SAVIOUR (ALLAH) gave us to Study and Learn is the Fulfillment of the Prophecies of All the Former Prophets concerning the Beginning of the Devils, and the Ending of the Civilization, and of our Enslavement by

25591-696: Was fun, funny, and invented graphic ways of ridiculing dictator Slobodan Milosevic . It turned fatalism and passivity into action by making it easy, even cool, to become a revolutionary, branding itself within hip slogans, rock music and street theatre. Tina Rosenberg , in Join the Club, How Peer Pressure can Transform the World , shows how movements grow when there is a core of enthusiastic players who encourage others to join them. Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement: A difficulty for scholarship of movements

25754-409: Was leaving my mother was hurt, and it hurt me to see her hurting like that. She said, she walked me to the door, which she didn't do, that wasn't normal for her. And she stood on the porch at the door and she said - 'Wallace, why don't you go back there and accept it? Just say you believe.' Social movement A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve

25917-584: Was never again seen by most residents of Detroit. On November 24, 1932, the Escanaba Daily Press reported that "Wallace Fard, said by police to be a leader of the Order of Islam religious cult, is awaiting an immigration hearing. Officials say he came to the United States from Asia." Fard was later released, but he may have been forced to accept voluntary deportation. After Fard's departure, he initially maintained communication with Elijah Muhammad, sending him

26080-438: Was past due. And that she is number one to be destroyed. Her judgment could not take place until we hear the truth. ... He declared that we were without the knowledge of self or anyone else. How we had been made blind, deaf and dumb by this white race of people and how we must return to our people, our God and His religion of peace (Islam), the religion of the prophets. We must give up the slave names of our slave-masters and accept

26243-725: Was the founder of the Nation of Islam . He arrived in Detroit in 1930 with an ambiguous background and several aliases and proselytized syncretic Islamic teachings to the city's black population. In 1934, he disappeared, and Elijah Muhammad succeeded him as leader of the Nation of Islam. The Islamic scholar John Andrew Morrow summarizes Fard's teachings as rooted in "a wide variety of (Islamic) ideas from both East and West" including " Twelver Shi'ism , Sevener Shi'ism , Druzism , and Shi'ite Extremism, as well as Babism , Baha'ism , Yezidism , Ahmadism , and Sufism ." Fard first appeared in Detroit in 1930; his followers cite July 4, 1930, as

26406-472: Was the only religious book with which the majority of his audience were familiar. Bowen similarly argues that in the early Nation of Islam, "ministers regularly referenced passages from the Bible to prove their claims". Fard's successor Elijah Muhammad would later claim Fard "knew the Bible better than any of the Christian-bred Negroes". Lomax wrote that Fard was "well-versed" in the Bible, used it as

26569-467: Was the product of a virgin birth, or was crucified and resurrected. God say you're the real devil. And you damn sure are. Ain't another devil nowhere else. Ain't no use you get mad with me, white people. You are the devil. The only hell-raiser on the earth. I'm not sayin' that you are responsible, 'cause you are made devil. But I'm not gonna make a mistake in thinkin' that you can be made better through love. Louis Farrakhan’s views on white people being

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