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104-555: The Moselle has been promoted as a quality white wine -producing region since the nineteenth century and " Moselle wine " is produced in three countries; it is the heart of the Luxembourg wine industry, and is also of the German Mosel region, and there are some vineyards in France. The Moselle has developed a strong tourism industry around its reputation as a rural idyll. The tourism sector

208-582: A Macedonian general named Neoptolemus obtained Armenia until he died in 321 BC and the Orontids returned, not as satraps, but as kings. Orontes III and the ruler of Lesser Armenia , Mithridates, recognized themselves independent, thus elevating the former Armenian satrapy into a kingdom, giving birth to the kingdoms of Armenia and Lesser Armenia. Orontes III also defeated the Thessalian commander Menon , who wanted to capture Sper 's gold mines. Weakened by

312-642: A brief period, until it was itself conquered by Rome in 69 BC. The remaining Artaxiad kings ruled as clients of Rome until they were overthrown in 12 AD due to their possible allegiance to Rome's main rival in the region, Parthia . During the Roman–Parthian Wars , the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was founded when Tiridates I , a member of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty, was proclaimed King of Armenia in 52. Throughout most of its history during this period, Armenia

416-696: A great influence on the Armenian alphabet. The Armenian alphabet was created by Saint Mesrop Mashtots and Isaac of Armenia (Sahak Partev) in AD 405, primarily for a Bible translation into the Armenian language . Traditionally, the following phrase translated from Solomon 's Book of Proverbs is said to be the first sentence to be written down in Armenian by Mashtots: Ճանաչել զիմաստութիւն եւ զխրատ, իմանալ զբանս հանճարոյ : Čanačʿel zimastutʿiun yev zxrat, imanal zbans hančaroy. To know wisdom and instruction; to perceive

520-431: A low pressure the cells leak their contents: the wort . The flesh of the grape contains mainly water. The organic components are fermentable sugars (between 170-230 grams for a dry wine and between 200 and 300 grams per litre or even more for Fortified wines ) and organic acids, especially malic acid and tartaric acid . Acids occur in larger amounts in the centre of the berry while the sugars are in greater proportion at

624-544: A process that long remained a secret in underground cellars of the winery. Prized by the House of Habsburg , Tokay experienced profitable trading. Attempted imitation came to nought and the use of noble rot remained a secret. It was not until 120 years later that a method of very late harvest was experimented with on the steep banks of the Rhine . Its use in Sauternes was attested in 1836 in

728-546: A sign of diversity in production at that time. In Roman times the type of viticulture practiced by the Greeks was their model; production included white wine. Rich Roman patricians organized banquets where the cost of the food was a sign of prestige. In the range of expensive products wine played a predominant role. The richest citizens built sumptuous villas in the Bay of Naples where the vine had been cultivated since its introduction by

832-453: A very large production area in a high temperature zone. The Catalonia region produces a lot of white grapes, which are transformed into Sparkling wine called Cava . The producing area for Cava is 45,000 hectares out of a total producing area of 65,600 hectares. The Americas have developed both white and red wines, some of which are now recognized worldwide. White wines have to conquer hostile territories where red wine dominates, such as

936-439: Is a wine that is fermented without skin contact . The colour can be straw-yellow, yellow-green, or yellow-gold. It is produced by the alcoholic fermentation of the non-coloured pulp of grapes , which may have a skin of any colour. White wine has existed for at least 4,000 years. The wide variety of white wines comes from the large number of varieties , methods of winemaking , and ratios of residual sugar . White wine

1040-428: Is derived from the complete fermentation of the wort . Sweet wines, on the other hand, are produced by interrupting the fermentation before all the grape sugars are converted into alcohol; this is called Mutage or fortification. The methods of enriching wort with sugar are multiple: on-ripening on the vine, passerillage (straining), or the use of noble rot . Sparkling wines , which are mostly white, are wines where

1144-467: Is mainly from "white" grapes, which are green or yellow in colour, such as the Chardonnay , Sauvignon blanc and Riesling . Some white wine is also made from grapes with coloured skin, provided that the obtained wort is not stained. Pinot noir , for example, is commonly used to produce champagne . Among the many types of white wine, dry white wine is the most common. More or less aromatic and tangy, it

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1248-819: Is most prominent in the Luxembourgian and German parts of the Moselle. Luxembourg's part of the valley roughly corresponds with the central and eastern parts of the cantons of Grevenmacher and Remich . Almost all of the lowest-lying communes in Luxembourg lie along the Moselle. There are no large towns in Luxembourg's part of the Moselle valley, but the main settlements are Grevenmacher , Mondorf-les-Bains , Remich , and Wasserbillig , all of which have populations in excess of 2,000 people. [REDACTED] Media related to Moselle valley at Wikimedia Commons 50°24′N 7°36′E  /  50.4°N 7.6°E  / 50.4; 7.6 White wine White wine

1352-402: Is necessary for the proper growth of yeasts that ensure alcoholic fermentation. In the must of healthy grapes, the natural quantity is sufficient for the yeast. On the other hand, for a degraded harvest (by gray mold), the degradation of this vitamin leads the winemaker to add it to the must to ensure a trouble-free fermentation. In the case of a harvest with a very clear wort and low temperature

1456-458: Is not a problem since they are not extracted in pressing. In addition the taste balance is based on a significant liveliness due to the acidity . The grapes for the production of dry white wine are harvested just before ripening. These production conditions can result in a more northerly or mountainous location for the vineyard producing dry white wines. In Europe, German vineyards are predominantly white (63.1% of production area in 2006 ), as are

1560-443: Is not desirable in the wine. This is why it is quickly isolated from the rest of the harvest, either by shaking or by pressing . The grape berry is made of skin, flesh (or pulp), and seeds. The seeds are hard and are 2 to 5% by weight of the berry. The seeds contain 25-45% water, 34-36% carbohydrates, 13-20% fat (the grape seed oil ), 4-6% tannins, 4-6.5% protein, 2-4% minerals, and 1% fatty acids. Their contribution in white wine

1664-441: Is present in green grapes, and its ratio decreases with maturation to give between 2 and 7 grams per litre at harvest. The range is very wide depending on the variety and soil with hot climates giving lower rates as the heat accelerates its degradation. There are many other acids in small quantities: citric acid , ascorbic acid , α-ketoglutaric, fumaric acid , galacturonic acid , coumaric acid , etc. Their variable quantity varies

1768-406: Is the herbaceous branch that bears the grapes. It consists of about 80% water, soluble minerals (nearly 3% with half of potassium ) and polyphenols . The polyphenols are mainly tannins and are responsible for the bitter taste and the sensation of astringency . In the production of a white wine, the stalk does not contain any useful part: its moisture can cause dilution and the presence of tannins

1872-486: Is the key criterion. For a dry white wine, technological maturity is calculated and the fruit is harvested just before (usually eight days ) the maturity of the sugar. At this point the relationship between sugar and acid is optimal. Further, low acidity will cause the future wine to be unbalanced with excess alcohol and lack of liveliness. In addition, the flavour will be less fresh and less vivid. Traditional hand harvesting of whole bunches has been increasingly challenged by

1976-434: Is zero since they are removed in the pressing, in addition, the pressure is insufficient to extract anything from the seed. The skin is 6-12% by weight of the grape. It is coated on the surface with Pruinescence , a waxy coating that gives a matte finish to the colour of the grape and contains the yeast responsible for fermentation. The grape skin also contains volatile compounds in its deeper layers. These are responsible for

2080-591: The Armenian Empire under Tigranes II , was a kingdom in the Ancient Near East which existed from 331 BC to 428 AD. Its history is divided into the successive reigns of three royal dynasties : Orontid (331 BC–200 BC), Artaxiad (189 BC–12 AD), and Arsacid (52–428). The root of the kingdom lies in one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia called Armenia ( Satrapy of Armenia ), which

2184-694: The Armenian Highlands was inhabited by Proto-Armenian and other tribes which did not yet constitute a unitary state or nation. The first state to rule over a significant part of the Armenian Highlands was the Kingdom of Urartu , also known as the Kingdom of Van or Ararat and called Biainili in the Urartian language used by its rulers. The kingdom competed with Assyria over supremacy in the highlands of Ararat and

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2288-664: The Château La Tour Blanche but at that time very late harvest gave a very rich wine that required several years to age in barrels. Other regions were discovering secrets which would make them rich. So it was that Dom Perignon was the legendary creator of champagne. In a northern vineyard he developed a special wine that would give rise to an exceptional passion for wine produced in a climate where it could not be expected for wine to reach maturity nor sufficient colour. The fashion of drinking cheap dry white wine started in Paris in

2392-780: The Fertile Crescent . Both kingdoms fell to Iranian invaders from the east (the Medes , followed by the Achaemenid Persians ) in the 6th century BC. Its territory was reorganized into a satrapy called Armenia . The Orontid dynasty ruled as satraps of the Achaemenid Empire for three centuries until the empire was defeated by Alexander the Great 's Macedonian Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC,

2496-626: The Loire and the Garonne . In the Mediterranean Basin the Crusades greatly enriched both rival republics of Venice and Genoa . To supply the troops of the rich Frankish lords these republics provided them with wine from Greece . The port of Monemvasia , which exported a large amount of white wine, gave its name to the variety Malvasia . The Crusaders also discovered Muscat wine. Once back home,

2600-606: The Marzpanate period over Persian Armenia . Those parts of historical Armenia remained firmly under Persian control until the Muslim conquest of Persia , while the Byzantine parts remained until being conquered, also by invading Arabic armies, in the 7th century. In 885, after years of Roman, Persian, and Arab rule, Armenia regained its independence under the Bagratuni dynasty . The army of

2704-506: The Müller-Thurgau . During the same period, Switzerland adopted, along the shores of Lake Geneva , vineyards predominantly producing white wine. During the 20th century planting vines in countries where it was unknown was booming. However, it was shaky in places with higher temperatures during fermentation. The use of larger containers creates problems during fermentation: the yeasts produce heat which cannot escape and beyond 35 °C

2808-473: The Rocky Mountains or Canada. In Canada, the technique of ice wine can produce exceptional wines in a climate which is apparently unfavourable. Canada is the largest producer of ice wine in the world. The warmer southern areas also produce white wine, but in a lower proportion. In addition, it is more often sweet or fortified wines, natural sweet wines or "vinés" wines, as in the case of vineyards around

2912-638: The Seleucid Empire virtually at an end—and ruled peacefully for 17 years. During the zenith of his rule, Tigranes the Great extended Armenia's territory outside of the Armenian Highland over parts of the Caucasus and the area that is now south-eastern Turkey , Iran , Syria and Lebanon , becoming one of the most powerful states in the Roman East. Armenia became a Roman client kingdom in 66 BC, after

3016-620: The Seleucid Empire which succeeded the Macedonian Empire, the last Orontid king, Orontes IV , was overthrown in 201/200 BC and the kingdom was taken over by a commander of the Seleucid Empire , Artaxias (Artashes) I , who is presumed to have been related to the Orontid dynasty himself. The Seleucid Empire 's influence over Armenia had weakened after it was defeated by the Romans in the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. A Hellenistic Armenian state

3120-488: The Seleucid Empire , he reunited Tmorik. Artaxias I was not able to reunite Lesser Armenia , Corduene , and Sophene , something completed by his grandson Tigranes the Great . At its peak, under Tigranes the Great, it incorporated, besides Armenia Major, Iberia , Albania , Cappadocia , Cilicia , Armenian Mesopotamia , Osroene , Adiabene , Syria , Assyria , Commagene , Sophene , Judea and Atropatene . Parthia and also some Arab tribes were vassals of Tigranes

3224-595: The carbon dioxide from the fermentation is kept dissolved in the wine and becomes gas when the bottle is opened. White wines are often used as an apéritif before a meal, with dessert , or as a refreshing drink between meals. White wines are often considered more refreshing and lighter in both style and taste than the majority of their red wine counterparts. Due to their acidity , aroma and ability to soften meat and deglaze cooking juices, white wines are often used in cooking. The first trace of wine that has been found dates to 7500 years ago, in present-day Iran but

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3328-548: The 16th century the first European vines were planted in America: in Mexico , then Peru , Bolivia , Argentina , and Chile . These were in addition to the native vines that grew in Mexico, but this pre-Columbian production was not for the production of wine since the grapes were too acidic. It was used to produce acachul a drink sweetened with fruit and honey. The Little Ice Age spelt

3432-500: The 18th century. To evade the excise duty, Parisians took the habit of going to drink their wine at the producers premises outside the walls of the city. Cabarets opened their doors by the river, becoming Guinguettes (similar to taverns): so the wine that was drunk there was also called "guinguet". This is a wine from the hills of the Seine or the Marne , sour, but the conditions of transport of

3536-578: The 19th century before the arrival of phylloxera was a golden age of wine. The Industrial Revolution enriched a bourgeoisie clientele for the best wines and the rural exodus to factories created a large market for mass-produced wines. A prominent example for white wines was the viticulture in Germany . The feeling of freedom infused into the German winemakers under French occupation during the First Empire prevented

3640-710: The 3rd century or in the beginning of the 4th century. The Armenian Second Legion had a permanent camp in one of the Northern provinces of the Orient, and built a camp in Satala . The Armenian Second legion is mentioned in the year 360 AD as a part of the garrison of Bezabda (anciently called Phoencia) in upper Tigris. In Bezabde the Armenian Second Legion served together with the Legions Parthica and II Flavia. In 390 AD Bezabde

3744-564: The Armenian throne was divided in two—Greater Armenia (state) and Sophene —both of which passed to members of the Artaxiad dynasty in 189 BC. During the Roman Republic 's eastern expansion, the Kingdom of Armenia, under Tigranes the Great , reached its peak, from 83 to 69 BC, after it reincorporated Sophene and conquered the remaining territories of the falling Seleucid Empire, effectively ending its existence and raising Armenia into an empire for

3848-666: The Great was brought to power by the Roman armies. After Gregory the Illuminator 's spreading of Christianity in Armenia, Tiridates accepted Christianity and made it his kingdom's official religion. The date of Armenia's conversion to Christianity is traditionally held to be 301, preceding the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great 's conversion and the Edict of Milan by a dozen years.In 387,

3952-550: The Greeks. The aminum or ancient grape produced a sweet white wine produced as mulled wine resembling modern-day Madeira . The conquering of regions more and more to the north encouraged the Romans to cultivate the vine and to produce lighter and less sweet wines. It also encouraged them to seek new wild varieties adaptable to these distant areas where the Mediterranean varieties showed their limits. For example, vines were planted on

4056-452: The Kingdom of Armenia reached its peak under the reign of Tigranes the Great . According to the author of Judith , his army included chariots and 12,000 cavalrymen, most likely heavy cavalry or cataphracts , a unit also commonly used by Seleucids and Parthians. His army consisted mainly of 120,000 infantrymen and 12,000 mounted archers , also an important feature of the Parthian army . Like

4160-683: The Kingdom of Armenia was split between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanid Empire. Western Armenia first became a province of the Roman Empire under the name of Armenia Minor , and later Byzantine Armenia ; Eastern Armenia remained a kingdom within Persia until, in 428, the local nobility overthrew the king, and the Sassanids installed a marzban ( governor ) in his place, beginning

4264-483: The Kingdom of Armenia was the Kur River, which was also the border between Caucasian Albania and Kingdom of Armenia. After 331 BC, Armenia was divided into Lesser Armenia (a region of the Kingdom of Pontus ), the Kingdom of Armenia (corresponding to Armenia Major) and the Kingdom of Sophene . In 189 BC when Artashes I 's reign began, many neighboring countries ( Media , Caucasian Iberia , Seleucid Empire ) exploiting

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4368-454: The Mediterranean ( muscat , madeira , marsala etc.). According to Claude and Lydia Bourguignon, red wines are well suited to soil based on limestone while the best white wines are produced on soils over metamorphic rocks ( Alsace , Moselle , Anjou ) or volcanic rocks ( Tokaj in Hungary and Slovakia ). In addition, white wines are also produced on land with a limestone sub-soil such as

4472-515: The Romans. After gaining Armenia in 60, then losing it in 62, the Romans sent the Legio XV Apollinaris from Pannonia to Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo , legatus of Syria . In 63, strengthened further by the legions III Gallica , V Macedonica , X Fretensis and XXII , General Corbulo entered into the territories of Vologases I of Parthia , who then returned the Armenian kingdom to Tiridates , king Vologases I's brother. An agreement

4576-503: The Seleucids, the bulk of Tigranes' army were foot soldiers. The Jewish historian Josephus talks of 500,000 men in total, including camp followers. These followers consisted of camels, donkeys, and mules used for baggage, sheep, cattle, and goats for food, said to be stocked in abundance for each man, and hoards of gold and silver. As a result, the marching Armenian army was listed as "a huge, irregular force, too many to count, like locusts or

4680-606: The Swiss vineyards (more than 50% of the area in production are white grapes ) and the Luxembourg vineyards (93% of the production area in white or grey grapes ). In France the northern half produces most of the white wines ( Alsace , Jura , Champagne , and the Loire Valley ). In Spain, paradoxically, Castile-La Mancha accounts for 50% of the Spanish vineyards, producing mostly white wine on

4784-712: The adoption of Christianity in the early 4th century, Zoroastrianism's influence in the kingdom gradually started to decline. Little is known about pre-Christian Armenian literature. Many literature pieces known to us were saved and then presented to us by Moses of Chorene . This is a pagan Armenian song, telling about the birth of Vahagn : Armenian version Երկնէր երկին, երկնէր երկիր, Երկնէր եւ ծովն ծիրանի, Երկն ի ծովուն ունէր և զկարմրիկն եղեգնիկ։ Ընդ եղեգան փող ծուխ ելանէր, Ընդ եղեգան փող բոց ելանէր, Եւ ի բոցոյն վազէր խարտեաշ պատանեկիկ։ Նա հուր հեր ունէր, Բոց ունէր մօրուս, Եւ աչքունքն էին արեգակունք։ Translation In travail were heaven and earth, In travail, too,

4888-477: The aristocracy and the clergy from recovering all the vineyards from which they were dispossessed. The practice of late harvest was widespread and the more or less sweet wines gained balance against their always lively acidity. In 1872, the Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute was created, and it was the source of a great amount of interbreeding giving new varieties – the best known of these is

4992-410: The aroma of the grape and for the molecules that become the aroma of wine during fermentation: They are the "aroma precursors". In red grapes, the film also contains anthocyanins or coloured matter, which is from bright to purplish red. To produce white wine from red grapes, it is necessary not to macerate the grapes, nor to press too hard on the harvest to avoid the dissolving of the anthocyanins in

5096-614: The banks of the Charente in the 17th century, Charente white wines were introduced as cognac . At the same time, the dry white wine popular with the Dutch was produced to the north, around the port of Nantes from the current areas of Muscadet AOC and Gros-plant AOVDQS in the Loire Valley. Vineyards in the Loire Valley and the South-west had their sales network thanks to the navigability of

5200-514: The banks of the Rhine to provide the Legions with a healthy drink, as opposed to water which was rarely drinkable. The wine was drunk cool in summer and warm in winter, a practice which still continues in the 21st century. Wine merchants failed to survive the fall of the Western Roman Empire and viticulture declined dramatically. The Germanic tribes preferred to drink beer and did not see

5304-556: The beauty of their horses and armor". Horses in Armenia, since ancient times were considered as the most important part and pride of the warrior. Since antiquity, Kingdom of Armenia had a cavalary called "Azatavrear", which consisted mainly of elite Armenians. "Azatavrear" cavalry made up the main part of the king's court. In medieval times, the cavalry were collected from nobles (usually the youngest sons of Armenian lords), and were known as Ayrudzi, or "horsemen." During times of peace, Armenian cavalry were divided into small groups which took

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5408-525: The berries have reached optimum ripeness or have been affected by noble rot (for the Sélection de Grains Nobles ). Handpicking is recommended for sparkling wines and absolutely necessary for white wines from grapes with coloured skin. Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) Armenia , also the Kingdom of Greater Armenia or simply Greater Armenia or Armenia Major (Armenian: Մեծ Հայք Mets Hayk ; Latin : Armenia Maior ), sometimes referred to as

5512-594: The berry, where it is a characteristic of the maturation of the grapes. Many different sugars coexist: the most common are glucose and fructose which will be consumed by anaerobic yeast to convert it to alcohol during fermentation. They are in substantially equal amounts. To verify the completion of the fermentation they can be quantified by chemical assay (glucose and fructose are "reducing" sugars that react with an alkaline copper solution called Fehling's solution ), an enzymatic method, or by infrared spectroscopy . Other sugars are not fermentable at all. After consumption by

5616-643: The building of Artaxata. The new city was laid on a strategic position at the juncture of trade routes that connected the Ancient Greek world with Bactria , India and the Black Sea which permitted the Armenians to prosper. Tigranes the Great saw an opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BC, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he entered Syria, and soon established himself as ruler of Syria—putting

5720-548: The capital. Sohaemus , a Roman citizen of Armenian heritage, was installed as the new client king . But during an epidemic within the Roman forces, Parthians retook most of their lost territory in 166. Sohaemus retreated to Syria, and the Arsacid dynasty was restored to power in Armenia. After the fall of the Arsacid dynasty in Persia, the succeeding Sassanid Empire aspired to reestablish Persian control. The Sassanid Persians occupied Armenia in 252. However, in 287, Tiridates III

5824-562: The chalky base of the Champagne wine region or the limestone under siliceous marl of Chassagne-Montrachet form the backdrop to some of the most prestigious wines in the world. Numerous varieties of grapes can be used to develop white wine. Some have achieved a strong reputation thanks to their marketing of a wine variety: Other grape varieties are less well known because they may be marketed under an Appellation or mixed with other varieties: Some varieties with coloured skins are also used to produce white wines: The stalk (or rafle )

5928-440: The culture of white wine in Germany and Austria. The Central European vineyards reached 100,000 hectares, which was three and a half times the area in the 1990s. From the 13th century traders distinguished vinum hunicum (wine of the Huns ), which was drunk by the people, from vinum francium (Wine of the Franks ) which was the wine for the wealthy aristocracy. There was recognition of varieties of Riesling and Sylvaner from

6032-410: The death knell of northern viticulture. The vine disappeared from northern Germany and Baden , and the maximum altitude for viticulture descended to 220 metres. Hans-Jürgen Otto noted that: "all the vineyards suffered and decreased in area". In England the vine also disappeared. The less early vineyards preferred to select white varieties of grapes because, even if unripe, white grapes allowed wine that

6136-427: The dust of the earth", not unlike many other enormous Eastern armies of the time. The smaller Cappadocian , Graeco-Phoenician, and Nabataean armies were generally no match for the sheer number of soldiers, with the organized Roman army with its legions eventually posing a much greater challenge to the Armenians. Note that the numbers given by Israelite historians of the time were probably exaggerated, considering

6240-425: The eastern Mediterranean and northern Europe fell sharply. At the same time, the Spanish had just completed their Reconquista and replaced the Mediterranean wine with its own, especially for English and Dutch consumers. The port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda began to export large quantities of white wine which was the ancestor of today's sherry . This wine was called sack and caused a sensation in England. Even at

6344-413: The efforts of the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus . After persecutions by kings Sanatruk , Axidares , Khosrov I , and Tiridates III , Christianity was adopted as the state religion by Tiridates III after he was converted by Gregory the Illuminator . Armenia's adoption of Christianity as the state religion (the first country to do so) distinguished it from Parthian and Mazdaen influence. Until

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6448-407: The fact that the Hasmonean Jews lost the war against Tigranes. Plutarch wrote that the Armenian archers could kill from 200 meters with their deadly-accurate arrows. The Romans admired and respected the bravery and the warrior spirit of the Armenian Cavalry – the core of Tigran's Army. The Roman historian Sallustius Crispus wrote that the Armenian [Ayrudzi – lit. horsemen] Cavalry was "remarkable by

6552-551: The final defeat of Armenia's ally, Mithridates VI of Pontus by Pompey at the Battle of the Lycus . Mark Antony invaded and defeated the kingdom in 34 BC, but the Romans lost hegemony during the Final War of the Roman Republic in 32–30 BC. In 20 BC, Augustus negotiated a truce with the Parthians , making Armenia a buffer zone between the two major powers. Augustus installed Tigranes V as king of Armenia in AD 6, but ruled with Erato of Armenia . The Romans then installed Mithridates of Armenia as client king. Mithridates

6656-440: The grape juice. The skin contains a lot of cellulose , insoluble pectin and proteins , and organic acids : citric , malic , and tartaric acids. The skin of the Sauvignon blanc B grape has a pH of about 4.15. It also contains between 2 and 3% tannins. The flesh of the grape is the most important part – it is between 75 and 85% of the weight of the grape. It consists of large polygonal cells which are very thin-walled. With

6760-413: The grapes with coloured flesh are called Teinturier , meaning coloured juice). Once harvested, the grapes are pressed, and only the juice, called wort , is extracted. The wort is put into tanks for fermentation where sugar is transformed into alcohol by yeast present on the grapes. Grape maturity depends on the requirement of the final product. For a sweet white wine, whether fortified or natural, sugar

6864-427: The grapes, are diametrically opposed to those very fruity wines marked by a refreshing liveliness. During the years 1960–1990, these methods of wine-making moved to Europe and the use of refrigeration equipment is now widely used in almost all regions producing white wine. Many wine-producing countries produce white wine. However, the white grape needs less heat than red grapes to ripen: The lack of maturity of tannins

6968-475: The harvesting machine for dry white wines, an economic choice but not always a qualitative one. The fragility of the grape requires either a rapid transfer to the winery or protection from oxidation. When the transport time between vine and winery is long, the harvest can be refrigerated and kept away from oxygen using nitrogen or dry ice. However, for some sweet wines, a successful harvest requires manual work and training for pickers to pick only clusters where

7072-403: The height of animosity between the two countries (as in the episode of the Spanish Armada in 1588) the trade continued – sometimes provided by pirates who stole what they could not buy. Between 40 and 60 thousand barrels each of 500 litres left the Spanish coast annually for England and the Netherlands (this volume of some 300,000 hectolitres represented two-thirds of today's production). From

7176-402: The ill-fated Persian campaign of the emperor Julianus Apostata in 363. "Legio Armeniaca" translates from Latin as "Armenian Legion " and "Secunda" as "Second". Like the First legion, the Armenian Second Legion was one of the later-period Roman imperial legions. This legion is also mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum. The Armenian Second Legion was thought to have been created around the end of

7280-420: The late Parthian period, Armenia was a predominantly Zoroastrian-adhering land. With the advent of Christianity, both paganism and Zoroastrianism gradually started to diminish. The founder of the Arsacid branch in Armenia , Tiridates I , was a Zoroastrian priest or magus. A noted episode which illustrates the observance by the Armenian Arsacids is the famous journey of Tiridates I to Rome in A.D. 65–66. With

7384-414: The late Middle Ages. Part of European trade was by sea along the Atlantic coast. The English, then the Dutch and Scandinavians from their demand for wine, created a craze for planting between Bordeaux and La Rochelle . Little dry white wine was produced for export from La Rochelle while Bordeaux exported mainly wines from the hinterland received via the Garonne . When wine production was introduced on

7488-425: The medieval period. During times of war, the number of Armenian cavalry would rise, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to at least 20,000 horsemen. Besides heavy cavalry, there was also light cavalry, which primarily consisted of mounted archers. "Legio Armeniaca" translates from Latin as "Armenian Legion" and "prima" as "first". The Armenian First Legion was one of the later-period Roman imperial legions. This Legion

7592-428: The micro-organisms begin to suffer and fermentation slows then stops. After cooling the wine a new addition of yeast is needed to resume fermentation (not to mention the adverse effects on the wine's aromas and the risk of lactic bite ). In California the search for temperature control of fermentation matured. Applied to white wine they revolutionized this type of wine. European wines, marked by their processes of crushing

7696-535: The negotiating table of the Congress of Vienna , using it to relax his partners in the discussions. The occupation of Champagne by Russian troops in 1815 publicized the sparkling wine to the Russian aristocracy. The Veuve Clicquot (Widow Clicquot) booked her wine to her occupants saying "they drink today, tomorrow they will pay..." The progress of the glass industry (especially from the use of coal) helped to democratize

7800-429: The pH of the wine. For these, when their solubility threshold is reached, they settle and contribute to de-acidify the wort. In the southern regions where acidity is sometimes a little lacking this may be a cause of failure of extra acidity. White winemaking is broadly similar to red winemaking although details differ when making the two types. White wine is made from white or black grapes (but always with white flesh;

7904-414: The pH of the wort. The must of white wine is generally more acidic than red grape must simply because the grape maturity is less advanced. Vitamin C (or ascorbic acid ) is present in the grape and the must up to 50 milligrams per litre. It is a protection in the wort against the oxidation phenomenon. In the presence of oxygen it produces hydrogen peroxide ; by this reaction it deprives the enzymes in

8008-465: The periphery. This heterogeneity in the distribution of sugars, acids, and inorganic compounds in the berry is used during pressing, especially in Champagne pressing. This process separates them as it happens and uses them to measure the progress of the "vintage", the first and second tailles , and finally the rebêches of insufficient quality to be made into AOC wine. The flesh is the major element of

8112-467: The purple sea, The travail held in the sea the small red reed. Through the hollow of the stalk came forth smoke, Through the hollow of the stalk came forth flame, And out of the flame a youth ran․ Fiery hair had he, Ay, too, he had flaming beard, And his eyes, they were as suns. Before the Armenian alphabet was created, Armenians used the Aramaic and Greek alphabets , the last of which had

8216-468: The reputation of the host. River trade was of great importance in the development of vineyards. The Germanic countries benefited from the navigability of the Rhine and the Danube so they could export their production. Charlemagne contributed to this growth by enacting his Capitulare de villis which included a set of rules on the cultivation of the vine in all areas. It was an era of great development of

8320-453: The results of archaeological excavations have not been able to determine from which time wine began to be produced. Epigraphy tells us about the presence of wine in the Middle East: it was produced in the "High Country" (the mountain borders between Anatolia and Armenia ) and then imported into Mesopotamia especially from the 3rd millennium BC. The tablets of Hattusa describes wine with

8424-456: The roles of guarding the King and other Armenian lords, as well as their families. Some part of the Armenian cavalry force was always patrolling Armenian borders, under the command of an Armenian general ( sparapet ). The group of Armenian cavalry whose main mission was the protection of the Armenian king and his family consisted of 6000 heavily armored horsemen in the ancient period, and 3000 horsemen in

8528-612: The rulers and wealthy aristocrats looked to buy the sweet wines they enjoyed in the East. They came from grapes that dominated the vineyards of Languedoc-Roussillon and Spain . Trade in these wines was facilitated by their high alcohol content which ensured preservation during the long journey to Northern Europe. In 1453 the Ottoman Empire took Constantinople and the situation of the Venetians and Genovese deteriorated. The wine trade between

8632-420: The state religion of Armenia, making the Armenian kingdom the first state in history to embrace Christianity officially. In 387, Armenia was partitioned into Byzantine Armenia and Persian Armenia . The last Arsacid king of Armenia was deposed in 428, ending independent Armenian statehood until the emergence of Bagratid Armenia in the 9th century. Prior to the 9th century BC, the geographic region known as

8736-665: The term wiyana in the Hittite language , GEŠTIN in Sumerian , and karânu in Akkadian . It could be red ( SA 5 GEŠTIN ), light (or maybe white: KÙ.BABBAR GEŠTIN ), good wine ( DUG.GA GEŠTIN ), honeyed ( LÀL GEŠTIN ) new ( GIBIL ), or sour ( GEŠTIN EMSA ). In Ancient Greece wine had already been developed and used since Hippocrates , a physician born around 460 BC who commonly prescribed it to patients. "Vinous white wine" and "bitter white wine" were used among his remedies –

8840-444: The time did not allow it to be used prematurely. Champagne was created in the 18th century but it was in the next century that its global expansion would occur. The crowned heads of Europe quickly made the wine stylish in their courts although its production, necessarily in bottles, made for a very expensive product. Historian Hugh Johnson assigns an important diplomatic role to champagne: Talleyrand would have offered this wine at

8944-538: The use of the glass bottle. The production of sparkling wine increased dramatically and spread to the American continent. The technique of manufacturing was industrialized and other regions were inspired but the reputation of champagne suffered. The commercial flight of champagne was a product of the Industrial Revolution that allowed it to be within the financial reach of the emerging middle classes. The period of

9048-570: The value of the wine trade. The decline of viticulture was intensified when Vikings cut the sea lanes in the Atlantic. In the south the Saracens were making Ghazw or raids. These campaigns in southern Europe caused Languedoc , Provence , Southern Italy, and the Douro Valley to become depopulated – the people being taken into slavery or fleeing the threat. Knowledge about the culture of grapevines

9152-490: The weakened state of the kingdom, conquered its remote regions. Strabo says that Artaxias I campaigned in the east and reunited Caspiane and Paytakaran , then campaigned in the north, defeated the Iberians , reuniting Gugark ( Strabo also notes that Iberia recognized themselves as vassals of the Kingdom of Armenia at this time), to the west, reuniting Karin , Ekeghik and Derjan and to the south, where, after many battles with

9256-436: The wine, as it is the part that contains the highest proportion of liquid. The flavours are much less present than in the skin. In the case of white winemaking, the wort is simply the grape juice from the pressing of grape berries. Sugars are carbohydrates derived from photosynthesis . The sucrose is made in the leaves and flows into the plant, where it is broken down into glucose and fructose and accumulates in

9360-432: The words of understanding. By the 2nd century BC, according to Strabo , the inhabitants of Greater Armenia spoke the Armenian language , implying that modern Armenians descended from that population. The Kingdom of Armenia was bordered by Caucasian Albania in the east, Iberia in the north, the Roman Empire in the west, and Parthia, later succeeded by Sassanian Empire, in the south. The border between Iberia and

9464-471: The wort of oxygen that is necessary to oxidize the wine. Since 1962 the addition of vitamin C in the wine has been allowed to a maximum of 15 grams per hectolitre at the time of packaging to stabilize the wine. Experiments in the late 2000s tried to determine a method to add it to fresh harvests or in the wort. Vitamin B1 or thiamine is present at a concentration between 0.2 and 0.5 milligrams per litre. This vitamin

9568-399: The yeast works in a limited way and the addition of thiamine can help avoid a difficult end of fermentation. Legislation limits the amount added to 30 milligrams per hectolitre. The wort also contains minerals. Sodium , Potassium , and Magnesium are most common. Potassium and also calcium can form salts with the tartaric acid: Potassium bitartrate and the neutral calcium tartrate at

9672-451: The yeast, the ratio of non-fermentable sugars (the ones that are not consumed by yeast: arabinose and xylose ) is between 0.5 and 1.7 grams per litre. Sugars exercise a control over the taste – they balance the spiciness of the acidity and the burning of the alcohol. The organic acids are mainly malic and tartaric acids. Tartaric acid is a characteristic of grapes; in its leaves, its content ranges from 5 to 7 grams per litre. Malic acid

9776-472: Was a little sour to still be consumable, while red grapes do not give enough colour, and green tannins make the wine bitter. The interruption of the fermentation by a cold winter led to the discovery of the process of secondary fermentation of champagne. The enrichment of some of the population created a craze for rare wines. This phenomenon, which was already responsible for the development of sherry in England,

9880-557: Was arrested by Caligula , but later restored by Claudius . Subsequently, Armenia was often a focus of contention between Rome and Parthia, with both major powers supporting opposing sovereigns and usurpers . The Parthians forced Armenia into submission in AD 37, but in AD 47 the Romans retook control of the kingdom. In AD 51 Armenia fell to an Iberian invasion sponsored by Parthia, led by Rhadamistus . Tigranes VI of Armenia ruled from AD 58, again installed by Roman support. The period of turmoil ends in AD 66, when Tiridates I of Armenia

9984-462: Was conserved by the Catholic Church : Wine was necessary for the celebration of Mass , and the monks planted vines at high latitudes and increased the monastic acreages. Difficult to transport and store, wine long remained a product for local consumption. The trade was re-established initially after the enrichment of the nobles and prelates because, as with the Romans, the art of the table reflected

10088-540: Was crowned king of Armenia by Nero . For the remaining duration of the Armenian kingdom, Rome still considered it a client kingdom de jure , but the ruling dynasty was of Parthian extraction, and contemporary Roman writers thought that Nero had de facto yielded Armenia to the Parthians. Under Nero , the Romans fought a campaign (55–63) against the Parthian Empire , which had invaded the Kingdom of Armenia, allied with

10192-565: Was formed from the territory of the Kingdom of Ararat (860 BC–590 BC) after it was conquered by the Median Empire in 590 BC. The satrapy became a kingdom in 321 BC during the reign of the Orontid dynasty after the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great , which was then incorporated as one of the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Seleucid Empire . Under the Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC),

10296-510: Was heavily contested between Rome and Parthia, and the Armenian nobility was divided among pro-Roman, pro-Parthian or neutral factions. From 114 to 118, Armenia briefly became a province of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan . The Kingdom of Armenia often served as a client state or vassal at the frontier of the two large empires and their successors, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires. In 301, Tiridates III proclaimed Christianity as

10400-475: Was mentioned in the late-antique text known as Notitia Dignitatum . It is most likely that the Armenian First Legion was formed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, in the western part of the Kingdom, with the mission to protect the lands of Armenia from intrusion. It might first have been the garrison of Armenian lands which had been under the control of the Roman Empire . The Armenian First Legion took part in

10504-519: Was reached at the Treaty of Rhandeia in 63, according to which members of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty would rule Armenia as client kings of Rome. Another campaign was led by Emperor Lucius Verus in 162–165, after Vologases IV of Parthia had invaded Armenia and installed his chief general on its throne. To counter the Parthian threat, Verus set out for the east. His army won significant victories and retook

10608-614: Was reproduced in Central Europe. The discovery of the benefits of the noble rot on white grapes took place around 1650 in Hungary for the development of Tokaji wine. Hugh Johnson declared that: "the Tokay of three centuries ago was the best sweet wine in the world, it was inherited from a long-standing winemaking tradition". Developed with a grape whose exceptional maturity is due to a trade secret, this wine also developed its qualities through

10712-617: Was taken by the Persian army, and a terrible bloodbath ensued against the inhabitants and garrison. The legion seemed to have survived this battle, because it appears in Notitia Dignitatum, which was written in the 5th century. Later on, the Armenian Second legion became a part of the Byzantine army. The pre-Christian Armenian pantheon included: During the 1st century AD, Christianity spread through Armenia due to (according to legend)

10816-524: Was thus founded in the same year by Artaxias I alongside the Armenian kingdom of Sophene led by Zariadres . Artaxias seized Yervandashat , united the Armenian Highlands at the expense of neighboring tribes and founded the new royal capital of Artaxata near the Araxes River . According to Strabo and Plutarch , Hannibal received hospitality at the Armenian court of Artaxias I. The authors add an apocryphal story of how Hannibal planned and supervised

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