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106-663: (Redirected from Moschoi ) Moschi or Moschoi is a term from ancient records, and may refer to one of the following peoples: Mushki , an Iron Age people of Anatolia, known from Assyrian sources Moschia , a part of the Caucasus Mountains also associated with the Moschi/Moschoi Meskheti , a region and former province of Georgia located within Moschia Meskhetians , people from Meskheti Meskhetian Turks ,

212-499: A Chaldean warlord of the Bit-Yakin tribe, captured Babylon , restored Babylonian independence after eight years of Assyrian rule and allied with the eastern realm of Elam . Though Sargon considered Marduk-apla-iddina's seizure of Babylonia to be unacceptable, an attempt to defeat him in battle near Der in 720 was unsuccessful. At the same time, Yahu-Bihdi of Hama in Syria assembled

318-608: A Phrygian , Armenian , Anatolian , or Georgian language. The Eastern Mushki appear to have moved into Hatti in the 12th century BC, around the time that the Hittite Empire collapsed. Together with the Urumu and Kaskas (Apishlu), they attempted to invade the Middle Assyrian Empire 's Anatolian provinces of Alzi (Alshe) and Puruhuzzi in about 1160 BC, but they were pushed back and subjugated by Ashur-Dan I . In 1115 BC,

424-530: A coalition of minor states in the northern Levant to oppose Assyrian dominion. In addition to these revolts, Sargon may have had to deal with unfinished conflicts from Shalmaneser 's reign. At some point in the 720s, the Assyrians captured Samaria after a siege lasting several years and ended the Kingdom of Israel , with its territory becoming the new Assyrian province of Samerina . Sargon claimed to have conquered

530-404: A hundred letters and other documents describing the work. The chief coordinator was Tab-shar-Ashur , Sargon's chief treasurer, but at least twenty-six governors from across the empire were also associated with the construction; Sargon made the project a collaborative effort by the whole empire. Sargon took an active personal interest in the progress and frequently intervened in nearly all aspects of

636-562: A junior branch of the royal dynasty established at Hanigalbat centuries earlier. Some Assyriologists, such as John Anthony Brinkman , believe that Sargon did not belong to the direct dynastic lineage. The Babylonian Chronicles report that Shalmaneser died in January 722 and was succeeded in the same month by Sargon, who was between forty and fifty years old. The exact events surrounding his accession are not clear. Some historians such as Josette Elayi believe that Sargon legitimately inherited

742-481: A minor Assyrian king of the 19th century BC (after whom Sargon II is enumerated by modern historians), and the far more prominent 24th–23rd century BC Sargon of Akkad , conqueror of large parts of Mesopotamia and the founder of the Akkadian Empire . Sargon was probably an assumed regnal name . Royal names in ancient Mesopotamia were deliberate choices, setting the tone for a king's reign. Sargon most likely chose

848-410: A mountain fortress, perhaps Hilakku , frightened Midas, who willingly became Sargon's vassal. In 709, Assyria sent an expedition to Cyprus . This was the first time that the Assyrians gained detailed knowledge of the island. Sargon did not personally participate in the campaign and the Assyrians relied on their Levantine vassals for transportation. Because Cyprus was far away, actually controlling

954-633: A new canal from Borsippa to Babylon and defeating a people called the Hamaranaeans that had been plundering caravans near Sippar . In Sargon's inscriptions from this time, he used some traditionally Babylonian elements in his royal titles and frequently mentioned deities popular in Babylonia rather than those popular in Assyria. Some Assyrians, even members of the royal family, disagreed with Sargon's pro-Babylonian attitude. In Sargon's absence, developments in

1060-495: A noble named Yamani as king. In 712, Yamani approached Judah and Egypt for an alliance but the Egyptians refused Yamani's offer, maintaining good relations with Sargon. After the Assyrians defeated Yamani in 711 and Ashdod was destroyed, Yamani escaped to Egypt and was extradited to Assyria by Pharaoh Shebitku in 707. In 710, Sargon decided to reconquer Babylonia . To justify the impending expedition, Sargon proclaimed that

1166-450: A prominent position under the Sargonid kings. Sargon's only known reference to Shalmaneser describes Ashur punishing him for his policies: Shalmaneser, who did not fear the king of the world, whose hands have brought sacrilege in this city (Assur), pu[t on...] on his people, [he] impo[sed] the compulsory work and a heavy corvée, paid them like a working class [...]. The Illil of the gods, in

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1272-453: A result, Sennacherib distanced himself from Sargon. Sargon was barely mentioned in later ancient literature and nearly completely forgotten until the ruins of Dur-Sharrukin were discovered in the 19th century. He was not fully accepted in Assyriology as a real king until the 1860s. Due to his conquests and reforms, Sargon is today considered one of the most important Assyrian kings. Nothing

1378-522: A younger brother, Sin-ahu-usur ( Sîn-ahu-usur ), who was by 714 the commander of Sargon's royal cavalry guard. After the inauguration of Dur-Sharrukin in 706, he was granted his own residence in the new capital. He appears to have held the influential position of grand vizier . Two wives of Sargon are known: Ra'ima ( Ra'īmâ ) and Atalia ( Ataliā ). Atalia was Sargon's queen ; her tomb was discovered in Nimrud in 1989. The general assumption among researchers

1484-637: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Mushki Identification of the Eastern Mushki with the Western Mushki is uncertain, but it is possible that at least some of the Eastern Mushki migrated to Cilicia in the 10th to the 8th centuries BC. Although almost nothing is known about what language (or languages) the Eastern or Western Mushki spoke, they have been variously identified as being speakers of

1590-457: Is known of Sargon II's life before he became king. He was probably born c. 770 BC and cannot have been born later than c. 760 BC. His reign was immediately preceded by those of Tiglath-Pileser III ( r.   745–727) and Tiglath-Pileser's son Shalmaneser V ( r.   727–722). Although Sargon is generally regarded as the founder of a new dynastic line, the Sargonid dynasty , he

1696-615: Is not clear why Sargon resolved to lead the expedition against Tabal in person, considering the large number of campaigns led by his officials and generals. Tabal was not a real threat against the Assyrian Empire. Elayi believes that the most likely explanation is that Sargon saw the expedition as an interesting diversion from the quiet court life of Dur-Sharrukin . Sargon's final campaign ended in disaster. Somewhere in Anatolia , Gurdî of Kulumma , an otherwise poorly attested figure, attacked

1802-416: Is that Šarru-kīn is a phonetic reproduction of the contracted pronunciation of Šarru-ukīn to Šarrukīn , which means that it should be interpreted as "the king has obtained/established order", possibly referencing disorder either under his predecessor or caused by Sargon's usurpation. Šarru-kīn can also be interpreted as "the legitimate king" or "the true king" and it could have been chosen because Sargon

1908-460: Is that Assyrian kings could have multiple wives, but only one woman at a time could be recognized as queen. Sennacherib was once believed to have been Atalia's son, but he is now known to have been the son of Ra'ima, since a stele from Assur, translated in 2014, explicitly refers to Ra'ima as his mother. There is no evidence that Ra'ima was ever Sargon's queen. Atalia is believed to have outlived Sargon and her remains found in 1989 indicate that she

2014-810: The Cappadocian Moschoi with the Biblical Japhetic tribe descended from Meshech in his writings on the Genealogy of the Nations in Genesis 10 , while Hippolytus of Rome connected Meshech with Illyrians . Meshech is named with Tubal as a principality of the prince of Gog and Magog in Ezekiel 38:2 and 39:1. Sargon II Sargon II ( Neo-Assyrian Akkadian : 𒈗𒁺 , romanized:  Šarru-kīn , meaning "the faithful king" or "the legitimate king")

2120-654: The Black Sea , and bounded on the south by the lofty chain of the Armenian mountains . Strabo locates the Moschoi in two places. The first location is somewhere in modern Abkhazia on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, in agreement with Stephan of Byzantium quoting Hellanicus . The second location Moschice ( Moschikê ) – in which was a temple of Leucothea , once famous for its wealth, but plundered by Pharnaces and Mithridates –

2226-460: The Borowski Stele , probably from Hama in Syria, which referenced his "royal fathers". Most historians cautiously accept that Sargon was Tiglath-Pileser's son but not the legitimate heir to the throne as the next-in-line after Shalmaneser. If Sargon was Tiglath-Pileser's son, his mother might have been the queen Iaba . Some Assyriologists, such as Natalie Naomi May, have suggested that Sargon

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2332-713: The Bronze Age Collapse , unlikely candidates for the Proto-Armenians. Some Georgian historians have proposed that the Mushki, together with other ancient tribes of Asia Minor mentioned in Assyrian sources (such as the Tibal and others), were "proto-Georgian" tribes, which contributed to the formation of the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Iberia . According to Donald Rayfield, Mushki, Moschoi, and Meskhi are floating names. He argues

2438-560: The Orontes . Defeated, Yahu-Bihdi escaped into Qarqar, which Sargon besieged and captured. Sargon's army destroyed Qarqar and devastated the surrounding lands. Yahu-Bihdi was first deported to Assyria together with his family and then flayed alive . Hama and the other insurgent cities were annexed again. At the same time as large numbers of people from Syria were resettled in other parts of the empire, Sargon resettled some people to Syria, including 6,300 "guilty Assyrians", presumably Assyrians from

2544-506: The 1st century AD mentions the Moscheni in southern Armenia (" Armenia " at the time stretching south and west to the Mediterranean, bordering on Cappadocia). In Byzantine historiography, Moschoi was a name equivalent to or considered as the ancestors of "Cappadocians" ( Eusebius ) with their capital at Mazaca (later Caesarea Mazaca, modern Develi, Kayseri ). According to Armenian tradition,

2650-431: The Assyrian army left. In 708, Mutallu of Kummuh withheld his tribute to Assyria for unknown reasons and allied with the new Urartian king Argishti II . Sargon sent one of his officers to capture Kummuh. The Assyrians heavily plundered Kummuh and annexed its lands. Mutallu survived, probably escaping to Urartu . May the ruler, its builder, reach and attain the old age, and (abundant) posterity, may its founder live into

2756-565: The Assyrian army refused to fight. Sargon assembled his bodyguards and led them in a near-suicidal charge against the nearest wing of the Urartian forces. Sargon's army followed him, defeated the Urartians, and chased them west, far past Lake Urmia. Rusa abandoned his forces and fled into the mountains. On their way home, the Assyrians destroyed the Gerdesorah and captured and plundered Musasir after

2862-608: The Assyrian camp. Gurdî has variously been assumed to have been a local ruler in Anatolia or a tribal leader of the Cimmerians , during this time allied with the rebels in Tabal. In the ensuing battle, Sargon was killed. The Assyrian soldiers fleeing from the attack were unable to recover the king's body. Sargon died just over a year after the inauguration of Dur-Sharrukin. In addition to Shalmaneser V probably being Sargon's brother, Sargon had

2968-408: The Assyrians defeated Hanunu, whose army had been bolstered by allies from Egypt , at Rafah . Despite the transgression, Gaza was kept as a semi-autonomous vassal state and not outright annexed, perhaps because the location, on the border of Egypt, was of high strategic importance. A pressing concern for Sargon was the kingdom of Urartu in the north. Though no longer as powerful as it had been in

3074-459: The Assyrians emissaries of Urikki, king of Que , who were sent to negotiate an anti-Assyrian contract with Urartu, as they passed through his territory. According to Assyrian military intelligence reports to Sargon recorded on clay tablets found in the Royal Archives of Nineveh by Sir Henry Layard , the Cimmerians invaded Urartu from Mannai in 714 BC. From there they turned west along

3180-478: The Assyrians' "known world". Since it had the king's image and words on it, it served as a representation of Sargon and a substitute for his presence. In 709, one of Sargon's officers besieged the Phoenician city of Tyre after its leader refused to ally with Assyria. It proved to be one of the few military blunders of Sargon's time; the city resisted the Assyrians for several years until Sargon's death, after which

3286-488: The Babylonian national deity Marduk had commanded him to liberate the south from the evil Marduk-apla-iddina . Though Babylonia and Elam still maintained good relations, the military alliance between the two had disintegrated. Sargon used diplomacy to convince cities and tribes within Babylonia to betray Marduk-apla-iddina. Through secret negotiations, several tribes and cities in northern Babylonia were won over, including

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3392-660: The Moschi as " Colchians ", situated next to the Matieni . According to Herodotus , the equipment of the Moschoi was similar to that of the Tibareni , Macrones , Mossynoeci and Mardae , with wooden caps upon their heads, and shields and small spears, on which long points were set. All these tribes formed the 19th satrapy of the Achaemenid empire , extending along the southeast of the Euxine, or

3498-579: The Mushki advanced further, penetrating into Kadmuhi, along the Upper Tigris . After being turned away by Tiglath-pileser I , the Mushki apparently settled in Alzi. Whether the Mushki initially moved into the core Hittite areas from the east or west has been a matter of some discussion by historians. It has been speculated that the Mushki were connected to the spread of the so-called Transcaucasian ceramic ware, which appeared as far west as modern Elazığ, Turkey in

3604-597: The Mushki may have worshiped the Hittite moon god Arma and the Luwian god Santush (Santa/Sandan) , comparing these names to the phonetically similar pagan Iberian gods Armazi and Zaden , whose idols were overthrown by Christian missionaries in the 4th century AD in Iberia. Rayfield's theories are speculative, however, and nothing is actually known of the Mushki's religious convictions. Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550 – 476 BC) speaks of

3710-507: The Mushki were a Thraco-Phrygian group who carried their Proto-Armenian language from the Balkans across Asia Minor , mixing with Hurrians (and Urartians ) and Luwians along the way. Diakonoff theorized that the root of the name Mushki was "Mush" (or perhaps "Mus," "Mos," or "Mosh") with the addition of the Armenian plural suffix -k' . Armen Petrosyan clarifies this, suggesting that -ki

3816-424: The Mushki. However, the connection between the Mushki and Armenian languages is quite unclear and many modern scholars have rejected a direct linguistic relationship if the Mushki were Phrygian speakers. Additionally, genetic research does not support significant admixture into the Armenian nation after 1200 BC, making the Mushki, if they indeed migrated from a Balkan or western Anatolian homeland during or after

3922-588: The Tigris and one of the branches of the Euphrates and arrived at the city Dur-Ladinni , near Babylon , Marduk-apla-iddina became frightened. He may have had little support from the people and priesthood of Babylon or had lost most of his army at Dur-Athara. Marduk-apla-iddina fled to Elam, where he unsuccessfully petitioned King Shutruk-Nahhunte II for aid. After Marduk-apla-iddina's departure, Sargon met little opposition on his march south. The people of Babylon opened

4028-407: The Urartian army and raided Urartian lands as far as immediately south-west of Lake Urmia . Ullusunu of Mannaea had switched by then his loyalty to Assyria. Rusa seized some of Ullusunu's fortresses and replaced him with Daiukku as the new king. Months later, Sargon invaded Mannaea, recaptured Ullusunu's fortresses and restored him to the throne. Rusa attempted to drive Sargon back, but his army

4134-516: The Urartu-aligned noble Mitatti occupied half of Iranzu's kingdom, but thanks to Sargon, Mitatti's uprising was suppressed. Shortly after the victory over the rebels, Iranzu died and Sargon intervened in the succession, supporting Iranzu's son Aza rise to the throne of Mannaea. Another son, Ullusunu , contested his brother's accession and was supported in his efforts against him by Rusa I of Urartu. Another of Sargon's prominent foreign enemies

4240-501: The ancient rulers Sargon of Akkad , from whom Sargon II likely took his regnal name, and Gilgamesh , Sargon aspired to conquer the known world, initiate a golden age and a new world order , and be remembered and revered by future generations. Over the course of his seventeen-year reign, Sargon substantially expanded Assyrian territory and enacted important political and military reforms. An accomplished warrior-king and military strategist , Sargon personally led his troops into battle. By

4346-418: The army and more than doubled the size of the empire. In contrast to Tiglath-Pileser, little is recorded of Shalmaneser's brief reign. Whereas kings typically elaborated on their origin in inscriptions, Sargon stated that the Assyrian national deity Ashur had called him to the throne. Sargon mentioned his origin in just two known inscriptions, where he referred to himself as Tiglath-Pileser's son, and in

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4452-432: The citadel it was constructed on, while temples and the ziggurat were relegated to a single corner. It was richly decorated with reliefs, statues, glazed bricks and stone lamassus (human-headed bulls). Other prominent structures in the city included temples, a building in the southwest called the arsenal ( ekal mâšarti ), and a great park, which included exotic plants from throughout the empire. The city's surrounding wall

4558-572: The cities of Arpad , Damascus , Sumur and Samaria . Three of the cities participating in the revolt (Arpad, Sumur and Damascus) were not vassal states; their lands had been converted into Assyrian provinces governed by royally appointed Assyrian governors. The revolt threatened to undo the administrative system established in Syria by Sargon's predecessors and the insurgents went on a killing spree , murdering all local Assyrians they could find. Sargon engaged Yahu-Bihdi and his coalition at Qarqar on

4664-563: The citizens of the city and spent the next three years in Babylon, in Marduk-apla-iddina's palace. Affairs in Assyria were in these years overseen by Sargon's son Sennacherib . Sargon participated in the annual Babylonian Akitu (New Years) festival and received homage and gifts from rulers of lands as far away from the heartland of his empire as Bahrain and Cyprus . Sargon engaged himself in various domestic affairs in Babylonia, digging

4770-409: The city of Sippar and the tribes Bit-Dakkuri and Bit-Amukkani . Sargon invaded Babylonia by marching alongside the eastern bank of the river Tigris until he reached the city of Dur-Athara , which had been fortified by Marduk-apla-iddina (moving also the entire Gambulu tribe, an Aramean people, into it), but was quickly defeated and renamed Dur-Nabu. Sargon created a new province surrounding

4876-485: The city of Mazaca was founded by and named after Mishak (Misak, Moshok), a cousin and general of the legendary patriarch Aram . Scholars have proposed a connection between the name Mishak and Mushki. The Armenian region of Mokk' and the city of Mush (Muş) may derive their names from the Mushki. According to Professor James R. Russell of Harvard University, the Georgian designation for Armenians, "Somekhi", refers to

4982-429: The city was one of the largest in antiquity . The city's palace, which Sargon called a "palace without rival", was built on a huge artificial platform on the northern side of the city astride the wall, as was typical of Neo-Assyrian palaces, and was fortified with a wall of its own. At 100,000 square meters (10 hectares; 25 acres), it was the largest Assyrian palace ever built. The palace itself occupied three quarters of

5088-603: The city, but it is more likely that Shalmaneser captured the city since both the Babylonian Chronicles and the Hebrew Bible viewed the fall of Israel as the signature event of his reign. Sargon's claim to conquering it may be related to the city being captured again after Yahu-Bihdi's revolt. Either Shalmaneser or Sargon ordered the dispersal of the city of Samaria's population across the Assyrian Empire , following

5194-521: The city, Gambulu. Dur-Athara might have been seized specifically to prevent the Elamites from sending any significant aid to Marduk-apla-iddina. Sargon spent some time at Dur-Athara, sending his soldiers on expeditions to the east and south to convince cities and tribes to submit to his rule. Sargon's forces defeated a contingent of Aramean and Elamite soldiers by a river referred to as the Uknu. Once Sargon crossed

5300-464: The coast of the Black Sea as far as Sinope , and then headed south towards Tabal, in 705 BC campaigning against an Assyrian army in central Anatolia, resulting in the death of Sargon II, although they were cleared from Assyrian ruled territory. Macqueen (1986:157) and others have speculated that the Mushki under Mita may have participated in the Assyrian campaign and were forced to flee to western Anatolia, disappearing from Assyrian accounts, but entering

5406-472: The currency of the empire. Despite Sargon's repeated victories in the west, the Levant was not fully stabilized. Sargon established a new trading post near the border of Egypt in 716, staffed it with people deported from various conquered lands and placed it under the local Arab ruler Laban , an Assyrian vassal. In later writings, Sargon for unknown reasons falsely claimed that he in this year also subjugated

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5512-402: The distant days (of the future) ... may he who dwells therein, make jubilation in health of body, joy of heart, well-being of soul; may he have abundance of luck. Dur-Sharrukin was completed in 707 after a decade of construction. Sargon returned to Assyria to prepare the city's inauguration. A year later, he moved the royal court to Dur-Sharrukin. The inauguration began with Sargon "inviting

5618-413: The empire and extended the same rights and obligations to them as native Assyrians. He forgave defeated enemies on several occasions and maintained good relations with foreign kings and with the ruling classes of the lands he conquered. Sargon also increased the influence and status of both women and scribes at the royal court. Sargon embarked on his final campaign, against Tabal in Anatolia , in 705. He

5724-770: The end of his reign, all of his major enemies and rivals had been either defeated or pacified. Among Sargon's greatest accomplishments were the stabilization of Assyrian control over the Levant , the weakening of the northern kingdom of Urartu , and the reconquest of Babylonia . From 717 to 707, Sargon constructed a new Assyrian capital named after himself, Dur-Sharrukin ('Fort Sargon'), which he made his official residence in 706. Sargon considered himself to have been divinely mandated to maintain and ensure justice. Like other Assyrian kings, Sargon at times enacted brutal punishments against his enemies but there are no known cases of atrocities against civilians from his reign. He worked to assimilate and integrate conquered foreign peoples into

5830-415: The established local lords continue to rule their respective cities as vassals. Supplanting them and integrating the lands further into the imperial bureaucracy would have been costly and time-consuming due to their remoteness. As part of this eastern campaign, Sargon defeated some local rebels, including Bag-dati of Uishdish and Bel-sharru-usur of Kisheshim . In Mannaea, Ullusunu had succeeded in taking

5936-440: The expansion of his own empire. In addition to the name's historical connections, Sargon connected his regnal name to justice. In several inscriptions, Sargon described his name as akin to a divine mandate to ensure that his people lived just lives, for instance in an inscription in which Sargon described how he reimbursed the owners of the land he chose to construct his new capital city of Dur-Sharrukin on: In accordance with

6042-575: The former Muslim inhabitants of Meskheti, which is along the border with Turkey See also [ edit ] Moshi (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Moschi . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moschi&oldid=1036101675 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

6148-477: The gates with enthusiasm and he made a triumphal entry. Elayi speculated in 2017 that Sargon may have made an agreement with the city's priests, who might have preferred Assyrian rule over a Chaldean king. After some ceremonies in the city, Sargon relocated with his army to Kish to continue the war and suppress remaining resistance. Marduk-apla-iddina returned to Mesopotamia , taking up residence in his home city of Dur-Yakin and continuing to resist. Dur-Yakin

6254-415: The gods" to Dur-Sharrukin, placing statues of various gods in the city's temples. Sargon invited "princes of (all) countries, the governors of my land, scribes and superintendents, nobles, officials and elders of Assyria" to a great feast. The common people who had helped build the city were also invited to partake in the celebration, dining in the same hall as the king. Already shortly after its inauguration,

6360-471: The governor of Nimrud, requesting building materials, reads as follows: 700 bales of straw and 700 bundles of reeds, and each bundle no more than a donkey can carry, must be at hand in Dur-Sharrukin by the first day of Kislev . Should even one day pass by, you will die. Dur-Sharrukin reflected Sargon's self-image and how he wished the empire to see him. At about three square kilometers (1.2 square miles),

6466-457: The heartland who had fought against Sargon upon his accession but whose lives had been spared. Sargon described their resettlement as an act of mercy: "their transgression I disregarded, I had mercy on them". Around the same time as Yahu-Bihdi, Hanunu of Gaza in the south also rebelled against Assyria. After Sargon had defeated Yahu-Bihdi, he marched south. After capturing some other cities on his way, probably including Ekron and Gibbethon ,

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6572-533: The island would have been difficult, but the campaign resulted in several Cypriote rulers paying tribute to Sargon. After the departure of the expedition, the Cypriotes, probably with the aid of an Assyrian stonemason sent by the royal court, fashioned the Sargon Stele . The stele was an ideological marker indicating the boundary of the Assyrian king's sphere of influence and to mark the incorporation of Cyprus into

6678-412: The kingdom's natural resources (mainly silver and wood, required for the construction of Dur-Sharrukin) and to prevent Urartu from establishing control and contacting Phrygia. Sargon used a divide and rule approach in Tabal; territory was distributed between the different Tabalian rulers to prevent any one of them from growing strong enough to present a problem. Sargon also encouraged the loose hegemony of

6784-588: The late second millennium BC. This ceramic ware is believed to have been developed in the South Caucasus region, possibly by the Trialeti-Vanadzor culture originally, which suggests an eastern homeland for the Mushki. In the 8th century BC, Tabal became the most influential of the Neo-Hittite polities, and the Mushki under Mita entered an anti-Assyrian alliance with Tabal and Carchemish . The alliance

6890-413: The local governor, king Urzana, refused to welcome Sargon. An enormous quantity of spoils were carried back to Assyria. Urzana was forgiven and allowed to continue to govern Musasir as an Assyrian vassal. Though Urartu remained powerful and Rusa retook Musasir, the 714 campaign put an end to direct confrontations between Urartu and Assyria for the rest of Sargon's reign. Sargon considered the campaign one of

6996-439: The location otherwise lacked obvious practical or political merit. In one of his inscriptions, Sargon alluded to fondness for the foothills of Mount Musri: "following the prompting of my heart, I built a city at the foot of Mount Musri, in the plain of Nineveh, and named it Dur-Sharrukin". Since no buildings had ever been constructed at the chosen location, previous architecture did not have to be taken into account and he conceived

7102-480: The loyalty of his northern vassals and to curb the influence of Elam ; though Elam itself did not pose a threat towards Assyria, it would not be possible to reconquer Babylonia without first breaking Marduk-apla-iddina 's alliance with the Elamites. In 713, Sargon campaigned in the Zagros Mountains again, defeating a revolt in the land of Karalla, meeting with Ullusunu of Mannaea and receiving some tribute. In

7208-524: The major events of his reign. It was described in exceptional detail in his inscriptions and several of the reliefs in his palace were decorated with representations of the sack of Musasir. The foundations of Dur-Sharrukin ("fortress of Sargon") were laid in 717. Dur-Sharrukin was built between the Husur river and Mount Musri , near the village of Magganabba , around 16 kilometres (10 miles) northeast of Nineveh . The new city could use water from Mount Musri but

7314-479: The mountain passes would become blocked by snow. This meant that conquest, if that had been the intention, would not be possible. Sargon reached Gilzanu , near Lake Urmia, and made camp. The Urartian forces regrouped and built new fortifications west and south of Lake Urmia. Though Sargon's forces had been granted supplies and water by his vassals in Media, his troops were exhausted and nearly mutinous. When Rusa arrived,

7420-417: The name due to its use by Sargon of Akkad. In late Assyrian texts, the names of Sargon II and Sargon of Akkad are written with the same spelling. Sargon II is sometimes explicitly called the "second Sargon" ( Šarru-kīn arkû ). Though the precise extent of the ancient Sargon's conquests had been forgotten, the legendary ruler was still remembered as a "conqueror of the world". Sargon II also energetically pursued

7526-444: The name which the great gods have given me – to maintain justice and right, to give guidance to those who are not strong, not to injure the weak – the price of the fields of that town [Khorsabad] I paid back to their owners ... The name was most commonly written Šarru-kīn , although Šarru-ukīn , is also attested. Sargon's name is commonly interpreted as "the faithful king" in the sense of righteousness and justice. Another alternative

7632-475: The new capital was densely populated. Few sources survive describing Sargon's final campaign and death. Based on the Assyrian Eponym List and the Babylonian Chronicles , the most likely course of events is that Sargon embarked to campaign against Tabal , which had risen up against him, in the early summer of 705. This campaign was the last of several attempts to bring Tabal under Assyrian control. It

7738-407: The new city as an "ideal city", its proportions based on mathematical harmony. There were various numerical and geometrical correspondences between different aspects of the city and Dur-Sharrukin's city walls formed a nearly perfect square. The numerous surviving sources on the construction of the city include inscriptions carved on the walls of its buildings, reliefs depicting the process and over

7844-465: The past, when it at times rivalled Assyria in strength and influence, Urartu still remained an alternative suzerain for many smaller states in the north. In 718, Sargon intervened in Mannaea , one of these states. This campaign was as much a military effort as it was a diplomatic one; King Iranzu of Mannaea had been an Assyrian vassal for more than 25 years and had requested Sargon to aid him. A rebellion by

7950-576: The people of Egypt. In actuality, Sargon is recorded to have engaged in diplomacy with Pharaoh Osorkon IV , who gifted Sargon with twelve horses. In 716, Sargon campaigned between Urartu and Elam , perhaps part of a strategy to weaken these enemies. Passing through Mannaea , Sargon attacked Media , probably to establish control there and neutralize the region as a potential threat before confronting either Urartu or Elam. The local Medes were disunited and posed no serious threat to Assyria. After Sargon defeated them and established Assyrian provinces, he let

8056-538: The periphery of Greek historiography as king Midas of Phrygia . Rusas II of Urartu in the 7th century BC fought the Mushki-ni to his west, before he entered an alliance with them against Assyria. Some scholars have speculated that the Western Mushki were not Phrygians, but they conquered the Phrygians, or were conquered by the Phrygians, and the two became conflated with one another. According to Igor Diakonoff ,

8162-472: The residents of Assur. Several of Shalmaneser's policies and acts were revoked by Sargon. Hullî , a king in Tabal (a region in Anatolia ) deported by Shalmaneser, was reinstalled and Sargon reversed Shalmaneser's attempt to decrease trade with Egypt. Sargon II was the first king in more than a thousand years to bear the name Sargon. There were two Mesopotamian kings of the same name before his reign: Sargon I ,

8268-460: The rest of the empire were dealt with by his officials and generals. Midas of Phrygia remained a threat to Assyrian interests; to ensure that communication and trade remained open to Assyrian vassals in Anatolia , the Assyrians carefully monitored him. In 709, the Assyrian governor of Quwê , Ashur-sharru-usur personally resolved to end the Phrygian threat. His raids into Phrygia and the capture of

8374-616: The same year, Sargon sent his turtanu ( commander-in-chief ) to help Talta of Ellipi , an Assyrian vassal west of the Zagros Mountains. Sargon probably considered it important to keep good relations with Ellipi since it was a key buffer state between Assyria and Elam. Talta was threatened by a revolt, but after Assyrian intervention he retained his throne. Rusa still intended to extend Urartian influence into southern Anatolia despite Sargon's 714 victory. In 713 Sargon campaigned against Tabal in southern Anatolia again, trying to secure

8480-638: The standard resettlement policy . This specific resettlement resulted in the loss of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel . In his inscriptions, Sargon claimed to have resettled 27,280 Israelites. Though likely emotionally damaging for the resettled populace, the Assyrians valued deportees for their labor and generally treated them well, transporting them in safety and comfort together with their families and belongings. Shortly after his failure to retake Babylonia from Marduk-apla-iddina in 720, Sargon campaigned against Yahu-Bihdi. Among Yahu-Bihdi's supporters were

8586-517: The strongest Tabalian state, Bit-Purutash (sometimes called "Tabal proper" by modern historians), over the other Tabalian rulers. The king of Bit-Purutash, Ambaris , was granted Sargon's daughter Ahat-Abisha in marriage and some additional territory. This strategy was not successful; Ambaris began conspiring with the other rulers of Tabal and with Rusa and Midas. Sargon deposed Ambaris, deporting him to Assyria, and annexed Tabal. The Philistine city of Ashdod rebelled under its king Azuri in 713, and

8692-431: The throne from his brother Aza. Instead of deposing Ullusunu and proclaiming a new king, Sargon accepted Ullusunu's submission and endorsed him as king, forgiving his uprising and gaining his allegiance. Urartu remained Sargon's main strategic rival in the north. In 715, Urartu was severely weakened by an unsuccessful expedition against the Cimmerians , a nomadic people in the central Caucasus . The Cimmerians defeated

8798-399: The throne. Most scholars however believe him to have been a usurper; one theory is that Sargon killed Shalmaneser and seized the throne in a palace coup . Sargon rarely referenced his predecessors and, upon accession, faced massive domestic opposition. Shalmaneser probably had sons of his own who could have inherited the throne, such as the palace official Ashur-dain-aplu , who retained

8904-453: The valleys of the Great and Little Zab for three days before halting near Mount Kullar (the location of which remains unidentified). There Sargon chose a longer route through Kermanshah , probably since he knew the Urartians anticipated him attacking through the pass. The longer route delayed the Assyrians with mountains and greater distance. The campaign had to be completed before October, when

9010-426: The work, from commenting on architectural details to overseeing material transportation and the recruitment of labor. Sargon's frequent input and efforts to encourage more work is probably the main reason for how the city could be completed so fast and efficiently. Sargon's encouragement was at times lenient, particularly when dealing with grumbling among the workers, but at other times threatening. One of his letters to

9116-416: The wrath of his heart, overthrew [hi]s rule, and [appointed] me, Sargon, as king [of Assyria]. He raised my head; he let [me] take hold of the scepter, the throne (and) the tiara [...]. Sargon did not otherwise hold Shalmaneser responsible for the policies placed on Assur, since he wrote elsewhere that most of these had been enacted in the distant past. Tiglath-Pileser, not Shalmaneser, imposed forced labor on

9222-476: Was 20 metres (66 ft) high and 14 metres (46 ft) thick, reinforced at 15-meter (49 ft) intervals with more than two hundred bastions . The internal wall was named Ashur, the external wall Ninurta , the city's seven gates Shamash , Adad , Enlil , Anu , Ishtar , Ea and Belet-ili after gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon . In the years following the campaign against Urartu , Sargon worked to retain

9328-580: Was a Proto-Armenian form of the Classical Armenian -k' (compare to Ancient Greek -κοί) and etymologizes "Mush" as meaning "worker" or "agriculturalist." Some have placed (at least the Eastern) Mushki homeland in the Armenian Highlands and South Caucasus region. It is possible that at least some of the Mushki were Armenian-speakers or speakers of a closely related language. Pliny in

9434-464: Was a member of a collateral branch of the Adaside dynasty from the western part of the empire. In Babylonia , Sargon and his successors were considered part of the "dynasty of Hanigalbat " (a western territory), while earlier Assyrian kings were considered part of the "dynasty of Baltil" (Baltil being the name of the oldest portion of the ancient Assyrian capital of Assur ). Perhaps Sargon was connected to

9540-515: Was abolished as a vassal kingdom and annexed. Suspecting an Assyrian invasion, Rusa kept most of his army by Lake Urmia , close to the Assyrian border, which was already fortified against Assyrian invasion. The shortest path from Assyria to the Urartian heartland went through the Kel-i-šin pass in the Taurus Mountains . One of the most important places in all of Urartu, the holy city Musasir ,

9646-524: Was crucial to keep control over the regions of Tabal and Quwê to prevent communication between Midas and Rusa. Tabal—several minor states competing with each other, contested between Assyria, Phrygia and Urartu—was particularly important since it was rich in natural resources (including silver). Sargon campaigned against Tabal in 718, mostly against Kiakki of Shinuhtu , who withheld tribute and conspired with Midas. Sargon could not conquer Tabal because of its isolation and difficult terrain. Instead, Shinuhtu

9752-463: Was crushed by Sargon or one of his generals. Azuri was replaced as king by Ahi-Miti . In 712 the vassal king Tarhunazi of Kammanu in northern Syria rebelled against Assyria, seeking to ally with Midas. Tarhunazi had been placed on his throne during Sargon's 720 campaign in the Levant. This revolt was dealt with by Sargon's turtanu ; Tarhunazi was defeated and his lands were annexed. His capital, Melid ,

9858-459: Was defeated and the population of Carchemish was deported and replaced with Assyrians. The city and its surrounding lands were turned into an Assyrian province and an Assyrian palace was constructed. The conquest might have inspired Sargon to build his own new capital city ( Dur-Sharrukin ), a project which could be financed with the silver plundered from Carchemish. Sargon took so much silver from Carchemish that silver began to replace copper as

9964-491: Was defeated in the foothills of Sahand . Sargon also received the tribute of Ianzu , king of Nairi , another former Urartian vassal. Preparing for a campaign against Rusa, Sargon defeated some minor rebels in Media. In Anatolia , Urik of Quwê , changed his allegiance from Sargon to Midas of Phrygia and began sending envoys to Rusa. To prevent the formation of a northern alliance, Sargon attacked Quwê, defeating Urik and recapturing some cities that had fallen to Midas. Quwê

10070-529: Was divided between the Colchians , Armenians , and Iberians (cf. Mela , III. 5.4; Pliny VI.4.). These latter Moschoi were obviously Meskhi or Mesx’i (where Greek χ, chi , is Georgian ხ, x), located in southern Georgia. Procopius calls them Meschoi and says that they were subject to the Iberians (i.e., Georgians), and had embraced Christianity , the religion of their masters. Josephus Flavius identified

10176-479: Was fortified, a great ditch was dug surrounding its walls, and the surrounding countryside was flooded through a canal dug from the Euphrates . Guarded by the flooded terrain, Marduk-apla-iddina set up his camp outside the city walls. His forces were defeated by Sargon's army, which had crossed through the flooded terrain unimpeded. Marduk-apla-iddina fled into the city as the Assyrians began collecting spoils of war from his fallen soldiers. Sargon besieged Dur-Yakin but

10282-419: Was given to Mutallu of Kummuh . Mutallu was a trusted ally since the kings of Kummuh had long maintained good relations with the Assyrian court. After the Assyrian army defeated a revolt by the kingdom of Gurgum in 711 and it was annexed, Sargon's control of southern Anatolia became relatively stable. Shortly after Sargon's victory, Ashdod revolted again. The locals deposed Ahi-Miti and in his stead proclaimed

10388-405: Was given to a rival Tabalian ruler, Kurtî of Atunna . Kurtî conspired with Midas at some point between 718 and 713, but later maintained his allegiance to Sargon. Sargon returned to Syria in 717 to defeat an uprising led by Pisiri of Carchemish , who had supported Sargon during Yahu-Bihdi 's revolt but was now plotting with Midas to overthrow Assyrian hegemony in the region. The uprising

10494-426: Was killed in battle and the Assyrian army was unable to retrieve his body, preventing a traditional burial. According to ancient Mesopotamian religion , he was cursed to remain a restless ghost for eternity. Sargon's fate was a major psychological blow for the Assyrians and damaged his legacy. Sargon's son Sennacherib was deeply disturbed by his father's death and believed that he must have committed some grave sin. As

10600-500: Was located just west of this pass and was protected by fortifications. Rusa ordered the construction of the Gerdesorah , a new fortress strategically positioned on a hill. The Gerdesorah was still under construction when the Assyrians invaded. Sargon left the Assyrian capital of Nimrud in July 714. Rejecting the shortest route through the Kel-i-šin pass, Sargon marched his army through

10706-567: Was not the legitimate heir to the throne. The ancient Sargon of Akkad also became king through usurpation. The origin of the conventional modern version of the name, Sargon, is not entirely clear but it is probably based on the spelling in the Hebrew Bible ( srgwn ). Sargon's reign began with large-scale resistance against his rule in Assyria's heartland . Although quickly suppressed, this political instability led several peripheral regions to regain independence. In early 721, Marduk-apla-iddina II ,

10812-486: Was probably a scion of the incumbent Adaside dynasty . Sargon grew up during the reigns of Ashur-dan III ( r.   773–755 BC) and Ashur-nirari V ( r.   755–745 BC), when rebellion and plague affected the Neo-Assyrian Empire ; the prestige and power of Assyria dramatically declined. This trend reversed during the tenure of Tiglath-Pileser, who reduced the influence of powerful officials, reformed

10918-471: Was soon defeated by Sargon of Assyria , who captured Carchemish and drove back Mita to his own province. Ambaris of Tabal was diplomatically married to an Assyrian princess, and received the province of Hilakku under Assyrian dominion, but in 713 BC, Ambaris was deposed and Tabal became a fully fledged Assyrian province. In 709 BC, the Mushki re-emerged as allies of Assyria, Sargon naming Mita as his friend. It appears that Mita had captured and handed over to

11024-409: Was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 722 BC to his death in battle in 705. Probably the son of Tiglath-Pileser III ( r.   745–727), Sargon is generally believed to have become king after overthrowing Shalmaneser V ( r.   727–722), probably his brother. He is typically considered the founder of a new dynastic line, the Sargonid dynasty . Modelling his reign on the legends of

11130-490: Was the powerful and expansionist Midas of Phrygia in central Anatolia. Sargon worried about a possible alliance between Phrygia and Urartu and Midas' use of proxy warfare by encouraging Assyrian vassal states to rebel. Sargon could not fight against Midas directly but had to deal with uprisings by his vassals among the Syro-Hittite states , most of them located in remote locations in the mountains of southern Anatolia . It

11236-409: Was unable to take the city. As the siege dragged on, negotiations were started and in 709 it was agreed that the city would surrender and tear down its exterior walls in exchange for Sargon sparing Marduk-apla-iddina's life. Marduk-apla-iddina, along with his family and supporters, were granted passage to Elam to live in exile. After he took Babylon in 710, Sargon was proclaimed king of Babylon by

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