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80-544: Mono Lake ( / ˈ m oʊ n oʊ / MOH -noh ) is a saline soda lake in Mono County, California , formed at least 760,000 years ago as a terminal lake in an endorheic basin . The lack of an outlet causes high levels of salts to accumulate in the lake which make its water alkaline . The desert lake has an unusually productive ecosystem based on brine shrimp , which thrive in its waters, and provides critical habitat for two million annual migratory birds that feed on

160-507: A base is also called the acidity of the base. On the basis of acidity bases can be classified into three types: monoacidic, diacidic and triacidic. When one molecule of a base via complete ionization produces one hydroxide ion, the base is said to be a monoacidic or monoprotic base. Examples of monoacidic bases are: Sodium hydroxide , potassium hydroxide , silver hydroxide , ammonium hydroxide , etc. When one molecule of base via complete ionization produces two hydroxide ions,

240-587: A bond with a proton due to the unshared pair of electrons that the bases possess. In the Lewis theory , a base is an electron pair donor which can share a pair of electrons with an electron acceptor which is described as a Lewis acid. The Lewis theory is more general than the Brønsted model because the Lewis acid is not necessarily a proton, but can be another molecule (or ion) with a vacant low-lying orbital which can accept

320-501: A conjugate base by absorbing an electrically neutral acid, basic strength of the surface is determined. The "number of basic sites per unit surface area of the solid" is used to express how much basic strength is found on a solid base catalyst. Scientists have developed two methods to measure the amount of basic sites: one, titration with benzoic acid using indicators and gaseous acid adsorption. A solid with enough basic strength will absorb an electrically neutral acidic indicator and cause

400-571: A crucial role as a keystone species by regulating phytoplankton and bacterioplankton levels. The Artemia species also serves as an intermediate host for helminth parasites that affect migratory water birds like flamingos, grebes, gulls, shorebirds, and ducks. Vertebrates in saline lakes include certain fish and bird species, though they are sensitive to fluctuations in salinity. Many saline lakes are also alkaline, which imposes physiological challenges for fish, especially in managing nitrogenous waste excretion. Fish species vary by lake; for instance,

480-421: A hydroxide ion but nevertheless react with water, resulting in an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ion. Also, some non-aqueous solvents contain Brønsted bases which react with solvated protons. For example, in liquid ammonia , NH 2 is the basic ion species which accepts protons from NH 4 , the acidic species in this solvent. G. N. Lewis realized that water, ammonia, and other bases can form

560-477: A legal battle that forced Los Angeles to partially replenish the lake level. Mono Lake occupies part of the Mono Basin , an endorheic basin that has no outlet to the ocean. Dissolved salts in the runoff thus remain in the lake and raise the water's pH levels and salt concentration. The tributaries of Mono Lake include Lee Vining Creek , Rush Creek and Mill Creek which flows through Lundy Canyon. The basin

640-448: A p K a of more than about 13 are considered very weak, and their conjugate bases are strong bases. Group 1 salts of carbanions , amide ions , and hydrides tend to be even stronger bases due to the extreme weakness of their conjugate acids, which are stable hydrocarbons, amines, and dihydrogen. Usually, these bases are created by adding pure alkali metals such as sodium into the conjugate acid. They are called superbases , and it

720-908: A pair of electrons. One notable example is boron trifluoride (BF 3 ). Some other definitions of both bases and acids have been proposed in the past, but are not commonly used today. General properties of bases include: The following reaction represents the general reaction between a base (B) and water to produce a conjugate acid (BH ) and a conjugate base (OH ): B ( aq ) + H 2 O ( l ) ↽ − − ⇀ BH + ( aq ) + OH − ( aq ) {\displaystyle {\ce {{B}_{(aq)}+ {H2O}_{(l)}<=> {BH+}_{(aq)}+ {OH- }_{(aq)}}}} The equilibrium constant, K b , for this reaction can be found using

800-531: A report, "An Ecological Study of Mono Lake, California," which alerted California to the ecological dangers posed by the redirection of water away from the lake for municipal uses. Gaines formed the Mono Lake Committee in 1978. He and Sally Judy, a UC Davis student, led the committee and pursued an informational tour of California. They joined with the Audubon Society to fight a now famous court battle,

880-463: A violent exothermic reaction, and the base itself can cause just as much damage as the original acid spill. Bases are generally compounds that can neutralize an amount of acid. Both sodium carbonate and ammonia are bases, although neither of these substances contains OH groups. Both compounds accept H when dissolved in protic solvents such as water: From this, a pH , or acidity, can be calculated for aqueous solutions of bases. A base

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960-566: A warmer climate. The lake level has fluctuated during the Holocene , since the end of the ice ages. The Holocene high point is at elevation 6,499 feet (1,980.8 m), reached in approximately 1820 BCE. The low point before modern diversions is at elevation 6,368 feet (1,940.9 m), reached in 143 CE. The lowest modern level due to diversions is at 6,372.0 feet (1,942.2 m), reached in 1980. The hypersalinity and high alkalinity (pH=10 or equivalent to 4 milligrams of NaOH per liter of water) of

1040-584: A water solution due to the acidity of water. Resonance stabilization, however, enables weaker bases such as carboxylates; for example, sodium acetate is a weak base . A strong base is a basic chemical compound that can remove a proton (H ) from (or deprotonate ) a molecule of even a very weak acid (such as water) in an acid–base reaction. Common examples of strong bases include hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, like NaOH and Ca(OH) 2 , respectively. Due to their low solubility, some bases, such as alkaline earth hydroxides, can be used when

1120-460: Is a list of several strong bases: The cations of these strong bases appear in the first and second groups of the periodic table (alkali and earth alkali metals). Tetraalkylated ammonium hydroxides are also strong bases since they dissociate completely in water. Guanidine is a special case of a species that is exceptionally stable when protonated, analogously to the reason that makes perchloric acid and sulfuric acid very strong acids. Acids with

1200-464: Is also believed that calcite crystallization inhibitors such as phosphate , magnesium , and organic carbon may aid in the stabilization of ikaite. When heated, ikaite breaks down and becomes replaced by smaller crystals of calcite. In the Ikka Fjord of Greenland , ikaite was also observed to grow in columns similar to the tufa towers of Mono Lake. This has led scientists to believe that thinolitic tufa

1280-666: Is also defined as a molecule that has the ability to accept an electron pair bond by entering another atom's valence shell through its possession of one electron pair. There are a limited number of elements that have atoms with the ability to provide a molecule with basic properties. Carbon can act as a base as well as nitrogen and oxygen . Fluorine and sometimes rare gases possess this ability as well. This occurs typically in compounds such as butyl lithium , alkoxides , and metal amides such as sodium amide . Bases of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen without resonance stabilization are usually very strong, or superbases , which cannot exist in

1360-664: Is an indicator of past climates in Mono Lake because they reflect very cold temperatures. Russell (1883) studied the chemical composition of the different tufa types in Lake Lahontan , a large Pleistocene system of multiple lakes in California, Nevada, and Oregon. Not surprisingly, it was found that the tufas consisted primarily of CaO and CO 2 . However, they also contain minor constituents of MgO (~2 wt%), Fe/Al-oxides (.25-1.29 wt%), and PO 5 (0.3 wt%). The limnology of

1440-558: Is currently geologically active. Volcanic activity is related to the Mono–Inyo Craters : the most recent eruption occurred 350 years ago, resulting in the formation of Paoha Island . Panum Crater (on the south shore of the lake) is an example of a combined rhyolite dome and cinder cone . Many columns of limestone rise above the surface of Mono Lake. These limestone towers consist primarily of calcium carbonate minerals such as calcite (CaCO 3 ). This type of limestone rock

1520-725: Is derived from "Monachi", a Yokuts term for the tribes that live on both the east and west side of the Sierra Nevada. During early contact, the first known Mono Lake Paiute chief was Captain John . The Mono tribe has two bands: Eastern and Western. The Eastern Mono joined the Western Mono bands' villages annually at Hetch Hetchy Valley , Yosemite Valley , and along the Merced River to gather acorns , different plant species, and to trade. The Western Mono and Eastern mono traditionally lived in

1600-448: Is impossible to keep them in aqueous solutions because they are stronger bases than the hydroxide ion (See the leveling effect .) For example, the ethoxide ion (conjugate base of ethanol) undergoes this reaction quantitatively in presence of water. Examples of common superbases are: Strongest superbases are synthesised in only gas phase: A weak base is one which does not fully ionize in an aqueous solution , or in which protonation

1680-720: Is incomplete. For example, ammonia transfers a proton to water according to the equation The equilibrium constant for this reaction at 25 °C is 1.8 x 10 , such that the extent of reaction or degree of ionization is quite small. A Lewis base or electron-pair donor is a molecule with one or more high-energy lone pairs of electrons which can be shared with a low-energy vacant orbital in an acceptor molecule to form an adduct . In addition to H , possible electron-pair acceptors (Lewis acids) include neutral molecules such as BF 3 and high oxidation state metal ions such as Ag , Fe and Mn . Adducts involving metal ions are usually described as coordination complexes . According to

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1760-585: Is influenced by processes such as evaporation and deposition. Salt lakes face serious conservation challenges due to climate change, pollution and water diversion. The primary method of classification for salt lakes involves assessing the chemical composition of the water within the lakes, specifically its salinity, pH , and the dominant ions present. Subsaline lakes have a salinity lower than that of seawater but higher than freshwater , typically ranging from 0.5 to 3 grams per liter (g/L). Hyposaline lakes exhibit salinities from 0.5 to 3 g/L, which allows for

1840-514: Is known as the Pleistocene , which lasted until ~11 ka . Lake levels in Mono Lake can reveal how the climate fluctuated. For example, during the cold climate of the Pleistocene the lake level was higher because there was less evaporation and more precipitation . Following the Pleistocene, the lake level was generally lower due to increased evaporation and decreased precipitation associated with

1920-496: Is not limited to the Aral Sea; salt lakes around the world are shrinking due to excessive water diversion, dam construction, pollution, urbanization, and rising temperatures associated with climate change. The resulting declines cause severe disruptions to local ecosystems and biodiversity, degrades the environment, threatens economic stability, and displaces communities dependent on these lakes for resources and livelihood. In Utah, if

2000-494: Is now a dry lake bed during dry years due to water diversion beginning in the 1920s. Mono Lake was spared this fate when the California State Water Resources Control Board (after over a decade of litigation) issued an order (SWRCB Decision 1631) to protect Mono Lake and its tributary streams on September 28, 1994. SWRCB Board Vice-chair Marc Del Piero was the sole Hearing Officer (see D-1631). In 1941

2080-456: Is referred to as tufa , which is a term used for limestone that forms in low to moderate temperatures. Mono Lake is a highly alkaline lake, or soda lake . Alkalinity is a measure of how many bases are in a solution , and how well the solution can neutralize acids . Carbonate (CO 3 ) and bicarbonate (HCO 3 ) are both bases. Hence, Mono Lake has a very high content of dissolved inorganic carbon . Through supply of calcium ions (Ca),

2160-484: Is that it is a closed lake , meaning it has no outflow. Water can only escape the lake if it evaporates or is lost to groundwater . This may cause closed lakes to become very saline . The reconstruction of historical Mono Lake levels through carbon and oxygen isotopes have also revealed a correlation with well-documented changes in climate . In the recent past, Earth experienced periods of increased glaciation known as ice ages . This geological period of ice ages

2240-531: The National Audubon Society v. Superior Court , to protect Mono Lake through state public trust laws. While these efforts have resulted in positive change, the surface level is still below historical levels, and exposed shorelines are a source of significant alkaline dust during periods of high winds. Owens Lake , the once-navigable terminus of the Owens River which had sustained a healthy ecosystem,

2320-528: The American West. In 1968, the artist Robert Smithson made Mono Lake Non-Site (Cinders near Black Point) using pumice collected while visiting Mono on July 27, 1968, with his wife Nancy Holt and Michael Heizer (both prominent visual artists). In 2004, Nancy Holt made a short film entitled Mono Lake using Super 8 footage and photographs of this trip. An audio recording by Smithson and Heizer, two songs by Waylon Jennings , and Michel Legrand 's Le Jeu ,

2400-560: The French chemist, Guillaume-François Rouelle . ... In 1754 Rouelle explicitly defined a neutral salt as the product formed by the union of an acid with any substance, be it a water-soluble alkali, a volatile alkali, an absorbent earth, a metal, or an oil, capable of serving as "a base" for the salt "by giving it a concrete or solid form." Most acids known in the 18th century were volatile liquids or "spirits" capable of distillation, whereas salts, by their very nature, were crystalline solids. Hence it

2480-420: The French chemist, Louis Lémery , as a synonym for the older Paracelsian term "matrix." In keeping with 16th-century animism , Paracelsus had postulated that naturally occurring salts grew within the earth as a result of a universal acid or seminal principle having impregnated an earthy matrix or womb. ... Its modern meaning and general introduction into the chemical vocabulary, however, is usually attributed to

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2560-467: The Great Salt Lake is not conserved, the state could face potential economic and public health crises, with consequences for air quality, local agriculture, and wildlife. According to “Utah’s Great Salt Lake Strike Team”, in order increase the lake's level within the next 30 years, see average inflows must increase by 472,00 acre-feet per year, which is about a 33% increase in the amount that has reached

2640-665: The Los Angeles Aqueduct system farther northward into the Mono Basin with the completion of the Mono Craters Tunnel between the Grant Lake Reservoir on Rush Creek and the Upper Owens River. So much water was diverted that evaporation soon exceeded inflow and the surface level of Mono Lake fell rapidly. By 1982 the lake was reduced to 37,688 acres (15,252 ha), 69 percent of its 1941 surface area. By 1990,

2720-566: The Mono Lake ecosystem and became instrumental in alerting the public of the effects of the lower water level with Winkler's 1976 ecological inventory of the Mono Basin. The National Science Foundation funded the first comprehensive ecological study of Mono Lake, conducted by Gaines and undergraduate students. In June 1977, the Davis Institute of Ecology of the University of California published

2800-483: The Salton Sea is home to species such as carp, striped mullet, humpback sucker, and rainbow trout. Stratification in salt lakes occurs as a result of the unique chemical and environmental processes that cause water to separate into layers based on density . In these lakes, high rates of evaporation often concentrate salts, leading to denser, saltier water sinking to the lake's bottom, while fresher water remains nearer

2880-636: The acidic indicator's color to change to the color of its conjugate base. When performing the gaseous acid adsorption method, nitric oxide is used. The basic sites are then determined by calculating the amount of carbon dioxide that is absorbed. Basic substances can be used as insoluble heterogeneous catalysts for chemical reactions . Some examples are metal oxides such as magnesium oxide , calcium oxide , and barium oxide as well as potassium fluoride on alumina and some zeolites . Many transition metals make good catalysts, many of which form basic substances. Basic catalysts are used for hydrogenation ,

2960-441: The area occurred 3.8 million to 250,000 years ago. This activity was northwest of Mono Basin and included the formation of Aurora Crater, Beauty Peak, Cedar Hill (later an island in the highest stands of Mono Lake), and Mount Hicks. Lake Russell was the prehistoric predecessor to Mono Lake, during the Pleistocene . Its shoreline reached the modern-day elevation of 7,480 feet (2,280 m), about 1,100 feet (330 m) higher than

3040-633: The base is said to be diacidic or diprotic . Examples of diacidic bases are: Barium hydroxide , magnesium hydroxide , calcium hydroxide , zinc hydroxide , iron(II) hydroxide , tin(II) hydroxide , lead(II) hydroxide , copper(II) hydroxide , etc. When one molecule of base via complete ionization produces three hydroxide ions, the base is said to be triacidic or triprotic . Examples of triacidic bases are: Aluminium hydroxide , ferrous hydroxide , Gold Trihydroxide , The concept of base stems from an older alchemical notion of "the matrix": The term "base" appears to have been first used in 1717 by

3120-490: The deep waters. In meromictic lakes, the deeper waters do not undergo this mixing; the deeper layers are more saline than the water near the surface, and are typically nearly devoid of oxygen. As a result, becoming meromictic greatly changes a lake's ecology. Mono Lake has experienced meromictic periods in the past; this most recent episode of meromixis, brought on by the end of the water diversions, commenced in 1994 and had ended by 2004. An important characteristic of Mono Lake

3200-400: The diver performed a handstand underwater until the ripples dissipated. Mark Twain 's Roughing It , published in 1872, provides an informative early description of Mono Lake in its natural condition in the 1860s. Twain found the lake to be lying "in a lifeless, treeless, hideous desert... the loneliest place on earth." A scene featuring a volcano in the film Fair Wind to Java (1953)

3280-1014: The diversity of life, primarily supporting specialized organisms such as halophilic bacteria and certain species of brine shrimp . These lakes can have high concentrations of sodium salts and minerals, such as lithium, making such lakes vulnerable to mining interests. Hypersaline lakes can be found in the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica, where salinity can reach ≈440‰. Salt lakes form through complex chemical, geological, and biological processes, influenced by environmental conditions like high evaporation rates and restricted water outflow. As water carrying dissolved minerals ( sodium , potassium , and magnesium ) enters these basins, it gradually evaporates, concentrating these minerals until they precipitate as salt deposits. Then, specific ions interact under controlled temperatures, which leads to solid-solution formation and salt crystal deposition within

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3360-425: The effect of an acid is to increase the hydronium (H 3 O ) concentration in water, whereas bases reduce this concentration. A reaction between aqueous solutions of an acid and a base is called neutralization , producing a solution of water and a salt in which the salt separates into its component ions. If the aqueous solution is saturated with a given salt solute , any additional such salt precipitates out of

3440-429: The following general equation: In this equation, the base (B) and the extremely strong base (the conjugate base OH ) compete for the proton. As a result, bases that react with water have relatively small equilibrium constant values. The base is weaker when it has a lower equilibrium constant value. Bases react with acids to neutralize each other at a fast rate both in water and in alcohol. When dissolved in water,

3520-419: The formation of the large thinolite crystals (also referred to as glendonite ) in thinolitic tufa. It was relatively clear that the thinolites represented a calcite pseudomorph after some unknown original crystal . The original crystal was only determined when the mineral ikaite was discovered in 1963. Ikaite, or hexahydrated CaCO 3 , is metastable and only crystallizes at near-freezing temperatures. It

3600-479: The lack of vertical mixing. Extremophiles , including specific bacteria and archaea , inhabit the hypersaline and oxygen-deficient zones at lower depths. Bacteria and archaea, for example, rely on alternative metabolic processes that do not depend on oxygen. These microorganisms play a critical role in nutrient cycling within salt lakes, as they break down organic material and release by-products that support other microbial communities. Due to limited biodiversity,

3680-400: The lake bed. This cycle of evaporation and deposition is the main process to the unique saline environment that characterizes a salt lake. Environmental factors further shape the composition and formation of salt lakes. Seasonal variations in temperature and evaporation drive mineral saturation and promote salt crystallization . In dry regions, water loss during warmer seasons concentrates

3760-465: The lake had dropped 45 vertical feet and had lost half its volume relative to the 1941 pre-diversion water level. As a result, alkaline sands and formerly submerged tufa towers became exposed, the water salinity doubled, and Negit Island became a peninsula , exposing the nests of California gulls to predators (such as coyotes ), and forcing the gull colony to abandon this site. In 1974, ecologist David Gaines and his student David Winkler studied

3840-428: The lake in recent years. Water conservation is viewed as being the most cost-effective and practical strategy to save salt lakes like the Great Salt Lake. Implementing strong water management policies, improving community awareness, and ensuring the return of water flow to these lakes are additional ways that may restore ecological balance. Other proposed methods of maintaining lake levels include cloud seeding and

3920-497: The lake is "as green as pea soup" with photosynthesizing algae. The lake is famous for the Mono Lake brine shrimp, Artemia monica , a tiny species of brine shrimp , no bigger than a thumbnail, that are endemic to the lake. During the warmer summer months, an estimated 4–6 trillion brine shrimp inhabit the lake. Brine shrimp have no food value for humans, but are a staple for birds of the region. The brine shrimp feed on microscopic algae. Alkali flies, Ephydra hians , live along

4000-484: The lake means that no fish are native to the lake. An attempt by the California Department of Fish and Game to stock the lake failed. The whole food chain of the lake is based on the high population of single-celled planktonic algae present in the photic zone of the lake. These algae reproduce rapidly during winter and early spring after winter runoff brings nutrients to the surface layer of water. By March

4080-451: The lake shows it contains approximately 280 million tons of dissolved salts, with the salinity varying depending upon the amount of water in the lake at any given time. Before 1941, average salinity was approximately 50 grams per liter (g/L) (compared to a value of 31.5 g/L for the world's oceans). In January 1982, when the lake reached its lowest level of 1,942 metres (6,372 ft), the salinity had nearly doubled to 99 g/L. In 2002, it

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4160-475: The lake's chemistry, supporting only specialized microbial life adapted to extreme environments with high salinity and low oxygen levels. The restricted vertical mixing limits nutrient cycling , creating a favorable ecosystem for halophiles (salt-loving organisms) that rely on these saline conditions for stability and balance. The extreme conditions within stratified salt lakes have a profound effect on aquatic life , as oxygen levels are severely limited due to

4240-548: The lake's salts. This creates a dynamic environment where seasonal shifts affect the salt lake's mineral layers, contributing to its evolving structure and composition. Groundwater rich in dissolved ions often serve as primary mineral sources that, combined with processes like evaporation and deposition, contribute to salt lake development. Salt lakes host a diverse range of animals, despite high levels of salinity acting as significant environmental constraints. Increased salinity worsens oxygen levels and thermal conditions, raising

4320-419: The main theme of Jacques Demy 's film Bay of Angels (1963), were used for the soundtrack. The Diver , a photo taken by Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis for Pink Floyd 's album Wish You Were Here (1975), features what appears to be a man diving into a lake, creating no ripples. The photo was taken at Mono Lake, and the tufa towers are a prominent part of the landscape. The effect was actually created when

4400-488: The mid-18th century. In 1884, Svante Arrhenius proposed that a base is a substance which dissociates in aqueous solution to form hydroxide ions OH . These ions can react with hydrogen ions (H according to Arrhenius) from the dissociation of acids to form water in an acid–base reaction . A base was therefore a metal hydroxide such as NaOH or Ca(OH) 2 . Such aqueous hydroxide solutions were also described by certain characteristic properties. They are slippery to

4480-606: The migration of double bonds , in the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction , the Michael reaction , and many others. Both CaO and BaO can be highly active catalysts if they are heated to high temperatures. Bases with only one ionizable hydroxide (OH ) ion per formula unit are called monoprotic since they can accept one proton (H ). Bases with more than one OH- per formula unit are polyprotic . The number of ionizable hydroxide (OH ) ions present in one formula unit of

4560-412: The mitigation of dust transmission hotspots. Note: Some of the following are also partly fresh and/or brackish water. Base (chemistry) In chemistry , there are three definitions in common use of the word " base ": Arrhenius bases , Brønsted bases , and Lewis bases . All definitions agree that bases are substances that react with acids , as originally proposed by G.-F. Rouelle in

4640-423: The original formulation of Lewis , when a neutral base forms a bond with a neutral acid, a condition of electric stress occurs. The acid and the base share the electron pair that formerly belonged to the base. As a result, a high dipole moment is created, which can only be decreased to zero by rearranging the molecules. Examples of solid bases include: Depending on a solid surface's ability to successfully form

4720-557: The presence of freshwater species along with some salt-tolerant aquatic organisms. Lake Alchichica in Mexico is a hyposaline lake. Mesosaline lakes have a salinity level ranging from 3 to 35 g/L. An example of a mesosaline lake is Redberry Lake in Saskatchewan, Canada . Hypersaline lakes possess salinities greater than 35 g/L, often reaching levels that can exceed 200 g/L. The extreme salinity levels create harsh conditions that limit

4800-679: The present-day lake. As of 1.6 million years ago, Lake Russell discharged to the northeast, into the Walker River drainage. After the Long Valley Caldera eruption 760,000 years ago, Lake Russell discharged into Adobe Lake to the southeast, then into the Owens River, and eventually into Lake Manly in Death Valley . Prominent shore lines of Lake Russell, called strandlines by geologists, can be seen west of Mono Lake. The area around Mono Lake

4880-417: The restrictive environment limits biodiversity , allowing only specially adapted life forms to survive, which creates unique, highly specialized ecosystems that are distinct from freshwater or less saline habitats. Salt lakes declined worldwide in recent years. The Aral Sea , once of the largest saline lakes with a surface area of 67,499 km in 1960, diminished to approximately 6,990 km in 2016. This trend

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4960-421: The salts dissolve, the stomach acid reacts with the hydroxide produced by the suspensions. Strong bases hydrolyze in water almost completely, resulting in the leveling effect ." In this process, the water molecule combines with a strong base, due to the water's amphoteric ability; and, a hydroxide ion is released. Very strong bases can even deprotonate very weakly acidic C–H groups in the absence of water. Here

5040-647: The shores of the lake and walk underwater, encased in small air bubbles, for grazing and to lay eggs. These flies are an important source of food for migratory and nesting birds. Eight nematode species were found living in the littoral sediment: Mono Lake is a vital resting and eating stop for migratory shorebirds and has been recognized as a site of international importance by the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network . Nearly 2,000,000 waterbirds , including 35 species of shorebirds, use Mono Lake to rest and eat for at least part of

5120-405: The shrimp and alkali flies ( Ephydra hians ). Historically, the native Kutzadika'a people ate the alkali flies' pupae , which live in the shallow waters around the edge of the lake. When the city of Los Angeles diverted water from the freshwater streams flowing into the lake, it lowered the lake level, which imperiled the migratory birds. The Mono Lake Committee formed in response and won

5200-417: The solubility factor is not taken into account. One advantage of this low solubility is that "many antacids were suspensions of metal hydroxides such as aluminium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide"; compounds with low solubility and the ability to stop an increase in the concentration of the hydroxide ion, preventing the harm of the tissues in the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach. As the reaction continues and

5280-491: The solution. In the more general Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory (1923), a base is a substance that can accept hydrogen cations (H )—otherwise known as protons . This does include aqueous hydroxides since OH does react with H to form water, so that Arrhenius bases are a subset of Brønsted bases. However, there are also other Brønsted bases which accept protons, such as aqueous solutions of ammonia (NH 3 ) or its organic derivatives ( amines ). These bases do not contain

5360-631: The south-central Sierra Nevada foothills, including Historical Yosemite Valley . Present day Mono Reservations are currently located in Big Pine , Bishop , and several in Madera County and Fresno County, California . The city of Los Angeles diverted water from the Owens River into the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913. In 1941, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power extended

5440-635: The strong base sodium hydroxide ionizes into hydroxide and sodium ions: and similarly, in water the acid hydrogen chloride forms hydronium and chloride ions: When the two solutions are mixed, the H 3 O and OH ions combine to form water molecules: If equal quantities of NaOH and HCl are dissolved, the base and the acid neutralize exactly, leaving only NaCl, effectively table salt , in solution. Weak bases, such as baking soda or egg white, should be used to neutralize any acid spills. Neutralizing acid spills with strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide , can cause

5520-541: The study of nesting populations on Mono Lake that was begun 35 years ago. Snowy plovers also arrive at Mono Lake each spring to nest along the northern and eastern shores. The indigenous people of Mono Lake are from a band of the Northern Paiute , called the Kutzadika'a . They speak the Northern Paiute language . The Kutzadika'a traditionally forage alkali fly pupae, called kutsavi in their language. The term "Mono"

5600-446: The surface level was at 6,417 feet (1,956 m) above sea level. As of October 2022, Mono Lake was at 6,378.7 feet (1,944 m) above sea level. The lake level of 6,392 feet (1,948 m) above sea level is the goal, designed to ensure that the lake would be able to reach and sustain a minimum surface level that is generally agreed to be the minimum for keeping the ecosystem healthy. It has been more difficult during years of drought in

5680-462: The surface. These seasonal changes influence the lake's structure, making stratification more pronounced during warmer months due to increasing evaporation, which drives separation between saline and fresher layers in the lake, leading a phenomenon known as meromixis (meromictic state), primarily prevents oxygen from penetrating the deeper layers and create the hypoxic (low oxygen) or anoxic (no oxygen) zones. This separation eventually influenced

5760-600: The touch, can taste bitter and change the color of pH indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue). In water, by altering the autoionization equilibrium , bases yield solutions in which the hydrogen ion activity is lower than it is in pure water, i.e., the water has a pH higher than 7.0 at standard conditions. A soluble base is called an alkali if it contains and releases OH ions quantitatively . Metal oxides , hydroxides , and especially alkoxides are basic, and conjugate bases of weak acids are weak bases. Bases and acids are seen as chemical opposites because

5840-620: The tropical oceans respectively. In addition to migratory birds, a few species spend several months to nest at Mono Lake. Mono Lake has the second largest nesting population of California gulls , Larus californicus , second only to the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Since abandoning the landbridged Negit Island in the late 1970s, California gulls have moved to some nearby islets and have established new, if less protected, nesting sites. Cornell University and Point Blue Conservation Science have continued

5920-685: The tufa towers came to rise above the water surface and stand as the pillars seen today (see Lake Level History for more information). Description of the Mono Lake tufa dates back to the 1880s, when Edward S. Dana and Israel C. Russell made the first systematic descriptions of the Mono Lake tufa. The tufa occurs as "modern" tufa towers. There are tufa sections from old shorelines, when the lake levels were higher. These pioneering works in tufa morphology are referred to by researchers and were confirmed by James R. Dunn in 1953. The tufa types can roughly be divided into three main categories based on morphology: Through time, many hypotheses were developed regarding

6000-454: The water will precipitate carbonate-minerals such as calcite (CaCO 3 ). Subsurface waters enter the bottom of Mono Lake through small springs. High concentrations of dissolved calcium ions in these subsurface waters cause huge amounts of calcite to precipitate around the spring orifices. The tufa originally formed at the bottom of the lake. It took many decades or even centuries to form the well-recognized tufa towers. When lake levels fell,

6080-433: The water's density and viscosity , which demands greater energy for animal movement. Despite these challenges, salt lakes support biota adapted to such conditions with specialized physiological and biochemical mechanisms. Common salt lake invertebrates include various parasites, with around 85 parasite species found in saline waters, including crustaceans and monogeneans . Among them, the filter-feeding brine shrimp plays

6160-413: The year. Some shorebirds that depend on the resources of Mono Lake include American avocets , killdeer , and sandpipers . One to two million eared grebes and phalaropes use Mono Lake during their long migrations. Late every summer tens of thousands of Wilson's phalaropes and red-necked phalaropes arrive from their nesting grounds, and feed until they continue their migration to South America or

6240-509: Was formed by geological forces over the last five million years: basin and range crustal stretching and associated volcanism and faulting at the base of the Sierra Nevada . From 4.5 to 2.6 million years ago, large volumes of basalt were extruded around what is now Cowtrack Mountain (east and south of Mono Basin); eventually covering 300 square miles (780 km) and reaching a maximum thickness of 600 feet (180 m). Later volcanism in

6320-461: Was measured at 78 g/L and is expected to stabilize at an average 69 g/L as the lake replenishes over the next 20 years. An unintended consequence of ending the water diversions was the onset of a period of "meromixis" in Mono Lake. In the time prior to this, Mono Lake was typically " monomictic "; which means that at least once each year the deeper waters and the shallower waters of the lake mixed thoroughly, thus bringing oxygen and other nutrients to

6400-489: Was shot at Mono Lake. Most of the film High Plains Drifter (1973) by Clint Eastwood was shot on the southern shores of Mono Lake in the 1970s. An entire town was built here for the film, and later removed when shooting was complete. The music video for glam metal band Cinderella 's 1988 power ballad " Don't Know What You Got ('Till It's Gone) " was filmed by the lake. Salt lake Salt lakes are classified according to salinity levels. The formation of these lakes

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