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100-707: Modi’in was known in ancient times for housing the mausoleum of the Hasmonean family, commonly referred to as the Tomb of the Maccabees . This monumental structure, erected in the 2nd century BC by Simon Thassi , is described in both the Book of Maccabees and the writings of Josephus . During the Byzantine period, Eusebius noted its continued existence. However, its remains were lost over time. The precise geographical location of Modi’in remains

200-548: A "large biblical site", doubted the identification of the site with Modi'in, pointing to the absence of evidence for a significant settlement during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods, as well as the absence of a nearby Roman road mentioned in rabbinic texts. To the west of al-Midya and Nahal Modi'in lies another archaeological site often linked to ancient Modi'in, commonly referred to as Khirbet el-Hammam but also mapped as Khirbet Midiyeh (distinct from Tell er-Ras, which

300-646: A Greek Jewish woman from Crete , who was a member of a distinguished family. They had two sons, Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa. Josephus's life story remains ambiguous. He was described by Harris in 1985 as a law-observant Jew who believed in the compatibility of Judaism and Graeco-Roman thought, commonly referred to as Hellenistic Judaism . Josippon , the Hebrew version of Josephus, contains changes. His critics were never satisfied as to why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee, and after his capture, accepted

400-471: A Roman onslaught. In Upper Galilee , he fortified the towns of Jamnith , Seph , Mero , and Achabare , among other places. Josephus, with the Galileans under his command, managed to bring both Sepphoris and Tiberias into subjection, but was eventually forced to relinquish his hold on Sepphoris by the arrival of Roman forces under Placidus the tribune and later by Vespasian himself. Josephus first engaged

500-499: A Seleucid detachment. However, scholars such as Jonathan A. Goldstein suggest that the writer simply picked a town known for its role in the revolt. The chapter seems to be loosely describing a second campaign from Lysias where 1 Maccabees reports Lysias approached Jerusalem from the southern route, yet Modein was to the north of Jerusalem; hence seeing the mention of Modein in this passage as unreliable or garbled. The historian Josephus 's work Jewish Antiquities uses 1 Maccabees as

600-589: A brief visit to Rome in the early 60s ( Life 13–17). In the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus 's triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from the despoiled Temple in Jerusalem . It was against this background that Josephus wrote his War . He blames the Jewish War on what he calls "unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics" among

700-462: A burial chamber either wholly above ground or within a burial vault below the superstructure. This contains the body or bodies, probably within sarcophagi or interment niches. Modern mausolea may also act as columbaria (a type of mausoleum for cremated remains) with additional cinerary urn niches. Mausolea may be located in a cemetery , a churchyard or on private land. In the United States ,

800-465: A cemetery can be used for funeral services. Josephus Flavius Josephus ( / dʒ oʊ ˈ s iː f ə s / ; Ancient Greek : Ἰώσηπος , Iṓsēpos ; c.  AD 37  – c.  100 ) or Yosef ben Mattityahu ( Hebrew : יוֹסֵף בֵּן מַתִּתְיָהוּ ) was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing The Jewish War , he was born in Jerusalem —then part of

900-594: A detailed examination of all the available manuscripts, mainly from France and Spain. Henry St. John Thackeray and successors such as Ralph Marcus used Niese's version for the Loeb Classical Library edition widely used today. On the Jewish side, Josephus was far more obscure, as he was perceived as a traitor. Rabbinical writings for a millennium after his death (e.g. the Mishnah ) almost never call out Josephus by name, although they sometimes tell parallel tales of

1000-564: A journey afar off Beyond Modi'ith, or a like distance in any direction. So R. Akiva ." " Ulla said, "From Modiʽim to Jerusalem is fifteen [Roman] miles ." Modiʽin may be the birthplace of the priest Rabbi Eleazar ha-Modaʽi , who appears to have been a prominent figure during the Bar-Kochba War . His leadership role is attested to in various sources such as the Mishnah , the Jerusalemite Talmud , and Lamentations Rabbah . During

1100-502: A juncture between the predominantly Jewish-inhabited area and the coastal plain , then predominantly populated with non-Jews. The Hasmonean mausoleum built near Modi'in stood in a high spot, atop a hill. During the Second Temple Period , several Jewish villages were located in this area. Scholars propose that the ancient name Modi'in is preserved on both sides of Wadi Malakeh, situated north of modern Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut , with

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1200-494: A local Arab tradition indicating that all remnants southwest of the stream—including Khirbet el-Hammam, Qubur al-Yahud, and Horbat HaGardi—were once part of a city known as El-Midya. Guérin identified ashlar-built structures, tesserae, cisterns, and what locals considered a bathhouse at el-Hammam, hence the name "Khirbet el- Hammam ", Arabic for "house of the bathhouse". Through recent studies a realization emerged that these sites of Sheikh el-Gharbawi and Qubur al-Yahud were adjacent to

1300-406: A major source and often paraphrases it, but sometimes includes new information, presumably from lost sources such as Nicolaus of Damascus . Antiquities Book 13 provides an account of the Hasmonean royal monument that was apparently still extant during his time, although with some alterations and exclusions to the parallel passage in 1 Maccabees: But Simon sent to the city of Basca and brought back

1400-666: A person of great experience in everything belonging to his own nation, he attained to that remarkable familiarity with his country in every part, which his antiquarian researches so abundantly evince. But he was controlled by political motives: his great purpose was to bring his people, the despised Jewish race, into honour with the Greeks and Romans; and this purpose underlay every sentence, and filled his history with distortions and exaggerations. Josephus mentions that in his day there were 240 towns and villages scattered across Upper and Lower Galilee , some of which he names. Josephus's works are

1500-568: A possible ancient Modi'in, suggesting that its Arabic name, "Umm el-Umdan", preserves the city's ancient name. However, the name, Arabic for "the mother of columns", is also present in other places within Israel, such as another site situated in the Jerusalem hills and one in the Judean Lowlands . Another site proposed as ancient Modi'in is Giv'at haTittora, also known as al-Burj , situated approximately 7 kilometers southeast of Khirbet el-Hammam, in

1600-641: A possible location for the ancient town. The site was unearthed in the 2000s during salvage excavations conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority amid the development of the Buchman neighborhood. The excavations unveiled a rural settlement featuring homes, burial sites, a synagogue and a ritual bath , dating from second century BC to the Bar Kochba war in 132 AD. Excavators Shlomit Wexler-Bdolah, Alexander Onn, and Yehuda Rapuano proposed this site as

1700-545: A ritual bath, and pottery items. This settlement appears to have been destroyed during the Bar-Kochba war. The site saw renewed occupation in the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, persisting until the 9th century during the early Muslim period. Boaz Zissu and Lior Perry proposed identifying the site of Khirbet el-Hummam/Khirbet Midieh as the location of both the Second Temple Period Modi'in and its successor,

1800-931: A significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees , the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great . He also describes the Sadducees , the Pharisees and Essenes , the Herodian Temple, Quirinius 's census and the Zealots , and such figures as Pontius Pilate , Herod the Great , Agrippa I and Agrippa II , John the Baptist , James the brother of Jesus , and Jesus . Josephus represents an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and

1900-522: A subject of scholarly dispute, with various proposed sites including Tell er-Ras near al-Midya , Givat HaTitora, Umm el-Umdan , and Khirbet Midya, all located in the vicinity of the modern city of Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut, which takes its name from the ancient city. The remnants of the Hasmonean mausoleum, once linked to several sites now attributed to the Byzantine era, remain undiscovered, and its precise location still unknown. The first reference to Modi'in

2000-514: A systematic order, proceeding topically and logically" and included all relevant material for their subject. Antiquarians moved beyond political history to include institutions and religious and private life. Josephus does offer this wider perspective in Antiquities . The works of Josephus are major sources of our understanding of Jewish life and history during the first century. His first work in Rome

2100-461: Is also occasionally referred to by the same name). In the 19th century, this area has drawn the attention of researchers like Victor Guérin and Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau , who explored sites such as Sheikh el-Gharbawi and Qubur al-Yahud ("Tombs of the Jews"), uncovering quarries, winepresses , and numerous tombs. During his visit in 1870, Guérin engaged in conversations with village elders, who shared

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2200-501: Is believed to have once stood. Mausoleum A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph . A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb , or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. The word mausoleum (from the Ancient Greek : μαυσωλεῖον ) derives from

2300-464: Is damaged in some places. In the Life , Niese follows mainly manuscript P, but refers also to AMW and R. Henry St. John Thackeray for the Loeb Classical Library has a Greek text also mainly dependent on P. André Pelletier edited a new Greek text for his translation of Life . The ongoing Münsteraner Josephus-Ausgabe of Münster University will provide a new critical apparatus. Late Old Slavonic translations of

2400-428: Is found in the text of 1 Maccabees , a book likely written by a court historian during the reign of the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus (134–104 BC). It records the relocation of Mattathias the Hasmonean, along with his family, from Jerusalem to Modi'in around ~168–167 BC: During that time, Mattathias, son of John son of Simeon, a priest of the clan of Joarib , left Jerusalem and settled at Modein. Later in

2500-423: Is repentance: in later life he felt so bad about the traitorous War that he needed to demonstrate … his loyalty to Jewish history, law and culture." However, Josephus's "countless incidental remarks explaining basic Judean language, customs and laws … assume a Gentile audience. He does not expect his first hearers to know anything about the laws or Judean origins." The issue of who would read this multi-volume work

2600-482: Is unresolved. Other possible motives for writing Antiquities could be to dispel the misrepresentation of Jewish origins or as an apologetic to Greek cities of the Diaspora in order to protect Jews and to Roman authorities to garner their support for the Jews facing persecution. Josephus was a very popular writer with Christians in the 4th century and beyond as an independent source to the events before, during, and after

2700-650: The Haskalah ("Jewish Enlightenment") in the 19th century, when sufficiently "neutral" vernacular language translations were made. Kalman Schulman finally created a Hebrew translation of the Greek text of Josephus in 1863, although many rabbis continued to prefer the Yosippon version. By the 20th century, Jewish attitudes toward Josephus had softened, as he gave the Jews a respectable place in classical history. Various parts of his work were reinterpreted as more inspiring and favorable to

2800-411: The nomen Flavius from his patrons, as was the custom amongst freedmen . Vespasian arranged for Josephus to marry a captured Jewish woman, whom he later divorced. Around the year 71, Josephus married an Alexandrian Jewish woman as his third wife. They had three sons, of whom only Flavius Hyrcanus survived childhood. Josephus later divorced his third wife. Around 75, he married his fourth wife,

2900-582: The Bible ), Jerome added a geographical detail to the mention of Modiʽin: "in monte Modin" ("on the mountain of Modiʽin"). On the Madaba map , commonly dated to the mid-6th century, Modiʽin appears situated on the border between the coastal plain and the Judaean Lowlands , along the route from Lod to Jerusalem, and between the towns of " Adiathim , now [H]aditha" and " Capher-uta (Ke[f]ar Ruta)". The town, labeled with

3000-634: The Egyptians , who, in turn, taught the Greeks . Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, like that of Rome, resisted monarchy . The great figures of the Tanakh are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders. He includes an autobiographical appendix defending his conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces. Louis H. Feldman outlines the difference between calling this work Antiquities of

3100-703: The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (near modern-day Bodrum in Turkey), the grave of King Mausolus , the Persian satrap of Caria , whose large tomb was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Mausolea were historically, and still may be, large and impressive constructions for a deceased leader or other person of importance. However, smaller mausolea soon became popular with the gentry and nobility in many countries. In

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3200-525: The Roman Empire , these were often in necropoles or along roadsides: the via Appia Antica retains the ruins of many private mausolea for kilometres outside Rome . When Christianity became dominant, mausolea were out of use. Later, mausolea became particularly popular in Europe and its colonies during the early modern and modern periods . A single mausoleum may be permanently sealed. A mausoleum encloses

3300-694: The Roman province of Judea —to a father of priestly descent and a mother who claimed royal ancestry . He initially fought against the Roman Empire during the First Jewish–Roman War as general of the Jewish forces in Galilee , until surrendering in AD ;67 to the Roman army led by military commander Vespasian after the six-week siege of Yodfat . Josephus claimed the Jewish messianic prophecies that initiated

3400-474: The square Hebrew and Greek scripts, dating from the late Second Temple Period to the Bar-Kochba war era. Another survey in 2000 revealed pottery sherds spanning various periods. In 2005, a survey uncovered rock-cut tombs, including kokhim-type tombs, shaft tombs, and tomb chambers, dating from the 2nd century BC to the early centuries CE. A salvage excavation led by Dalit Weinblatt and conducted in 1996-1997 at

3500-604: The 17th century. The 1544 Greek edition formed the basis of the 1732 English translation by William Whiston , which achieved enormous popularity in the English-speaking world. It was often the book—after the Bible—that Christians most frequently owned. Whiston claimed that certain works by Josephus had a similar style to the Epistles of St. Paul . Later editions of the Greek text include that of Benedikt Niese , who made

3600-511: The 2nd century BC. Horvat HaGardi, located north of Qubur al-Yahud, was also identified with the Maccabees' Tombs. This site is alternatively known as Sheikh al-Gharbawi ("the western sheikh "), an Islamic tomb-shrine located there. Adjacent to the shrine are the remains of a monumental rectangular structure made of ashlars, referred to in Arabic as "al-Qal'a" ("the fortress"). In 1870, Guérin excavated al-Qal'a, claiming it matched descriptions of

3700-465: The Arab village of al-Midya to the east and Khirbet Midieh to the west. Several archaeological sites in the area have been suggested as potential identifications for the ancient city. The Crusaders associated Hasmonean Modiʽin with different locations, including Tzoba /Belmont, near Latrun and near Hebron . In the 14th century, the Jewish traveller and geographer Ishtori Haparchi wrote that Modi'in

3800-502: The Byzantine period, there are scarce texts mentioning Modiʽin. 4th century bishop and scholar Eusebius wrote: "Modeeim (1 Maccabees 13:25): A village near Diospolis where the Maccabees were, and where their tombs are still now shown". Jerome corroborates Eusebius's account and expresses surprise at claims that the Maccabees' tombstone is in Antioch . In the Vulgate ( Latin translation of

3900-552: The Byzantine-era site of Moditha. They noted that this site meets geographical criteria, preserves the ancient name, and revealed significant findings indicating village existence during both periods. They suggest the Byzantine-period settlement was built upon the remains of Second Temple Period Modi'in. The archaeological site of Khirbet Umm el-Umdan, situated in the southern outskirts of modern Modi'in, has also been proposed as

4000-736: The First Jewish–Roman War made reference to Vespasian becoming Roman emperor . In response, Vespasian decided to keep him as a slave and presumably interpreter . After Vespasian became emperor in AD 69, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed the Emperor's family name of Flavius . Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship . He became an advisor and close associate of Vespasian's son Titus , serving as his translator during Titus's protracted siege of Jerusalem in AD 70, which resulted in

4100-457: The Galileans and by the Romans; he was guilty of shocking duplicity at Jotapata, saving himself by sacrifice of his companions; he was too naive to see how he stood condemned out of his own mouth for his conduct, and yet no words were too harsh when he was blackening his opponents; and after landing, however involuntarily, in the Roman camp, he turned his captivity to his own advantage, and benefited for

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4200-509: The Greek also exist, but these contain a large number of Christian interpolations. Author Joseph Raymond calls Josephus "the Jewish Benedict Arnold " for betraying his own troops at Jotapata, while historian Mary Smallwood , in the introduction to the translation of The Jewish War by G. A. Williamson , writes: [Josephus] was conceited, not only about his own learning, but also about the opinions held of him as commander both by

4300-458: The Jews (cf. Life 430) – where the author for the most part re-visits the events of the War and his tenure in Galilee as governor and commander, apparently in response to allegations made against him by Justus of Tiberias (cf. Life 336). Josephus's Against Apion is a two-volume defence of Judaism as classical religion and philosophy , stressing its antiquity, as opposed to what Josephus claimed

4400-478: The Jews , completed during the last year of the reign of the Emperor Flavius Domitian , around 93 or 94 AD. In expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time. Again he offers an apologia for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people. Josephus claims to be writing this history because he "saw that others perverted

4500-517: The Jews instead of History of the Jews . Although Josephus says that he describes the events contained in Antiquities "in the order of time that belongs to them," Feldman argues that Josephus "aimed to organize [his] material systematically rather than chronologically" and had a scope that "ranged far beyond mere political history to political institutions, religious and private life." An autobiographical text written by Josephus in approximately 94–99 CE – possibly as an appendix to his Antiquities of

4600-529: The Jews than the Renaissance translations by Christians had been. Notably, the last stand at Masada (described in The Jewish War ), which past generations had deemed insane and fanatical, received a more positive reinterpretation as an inspiring call to action in this period. The standard editio maior of the various Greek manuscripts is that of Benedictus Niese , published 1885–95. The text of Antiquities

4700-424: The Jews, who led the masses away from their traditional aristocratic leaders (like himself), with disastrous results. For example, Josephus writes that " Simon [bar Giora] was a greater terror to the people than the Romans themselves." Josephus also blames some of the Roman governors of Judea , representing them as corrupt and incompetent administrators. The next work by Josephus is his 21-volume Antiquities of

4800-403: The Roman army at a village called Garis , where he launched an attack against Sepphoris a second time, before being repulsed. At length, he resisted the Roman army in its siege of Yodfat (Jotapata) until it fell to the Roman army in the lunar month of Tammuz , in the thirteenth year of Nero 's reign. After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands;

4900-442: The Roman forces and became prisoners. In 69 AD, Josephus was released. According to his account, he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD, during which time his parents were held as hostages by Simon bar Giora . While being confined at Yodfat (Jotapata), Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation that later led to his speech predicting Vespasian would become emperor. After

5000-555: The Tomb of the Maccabees in ancient texts. He reported his findings to the French consul and consulted with architect Moss, who affirmed the identification of the site based on its resemblance to historical accounts. This view was also supported by PEF explorer Charles F. Tyrwhitt-Drake . However, Clermont-Ganneau 's extensive excavations in 1871, which uncovered a mosaic depicting a crux immissa and an arcosolium -type burial cave, suggest that

5100-460: The actions of both parties with accuracy." Josephus confesses he will be unable to contain his sadness in transcribing these events; to illustrate this will have little effect on his historiography, Josephus suggests, "But if any one be inflexible in his censures of me, let him attribute the facts themselves to the historical part, and the lamentations to the writer himself only." His preface to Antiquities offers his opinion early on, saying, "Upon

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5200-453: The ancient geography of the region: Outside of the Scriptures, Josephus holds the first and the only place among the native authors of Judaea; for Philo of Alexandria, the later Talmud, and other authorities, are of little service in understanding the geography of the country. Josephus is, however, to be used with great care. As a Jewish scholar, as an officer of Galilee, as a military man, and

5300-678: The bones of his brother, which he buried in Modein, his birthplace, while all the people made great lamentation over him. And Simon also built for his father and brothers a very great monument of polished white marble, and raising it to a great and conspicuous height, made porticoes round it, and erected monolithic pillars, a wonderful thing to see. In addition to these he built for his parents and his brothers seven pyramids, one for each, so made as to excite wonder by their size and beauty; and these have been preserved to this day. Rabbinical literature describes Modiʽin (also Modiʽim or Modiʽith) as situated on

5400-465: The book's narrative detail the construction by Simon , Matthatias's son, of an elaborate monument built atop an existing family burial site in Modi'in: Over the tomb of his father and his brothers Simon constructed a monument impressive for its height, built of hewn stone on both its front and rear sides. He set up seven pyramids, one in front of the other, for his father, his mother, and his four brothers. For

5500-477: The border between Lydda and western Judea. "From Modiʽith and inwards men may be deemed trustworthy in what concerns earth-enware vessels; from Modi'ith and outwards they may not be deemed trustworthy. Thus, if the potter himself sold the pot and came in hither from Modi'ith, in what concerns himself the potter, the selfsame pots, and the selfsame buyers, he may be deemed trustworthy. If he went out [beyond Modi'ith] he may not be deemed trustworthy." "What counts as

5600-456: The burial site of the Hasmoneans during the Byzantine period gained support from recent scholarship, including trial excavations led by Amit Re'em of the Israel Antiquities Authority in 2011. This theory was also accepted by Zissu and Perry. Several modern-day Israeli localities, including the city of Modi'in-Maccabim-Reut , are named after ancient Modi'in, and are situated in the area where it

5700-459: The center of the site, revealed signs of settlement activity tracing back to the Iron Age, with evidence of successive layers of occupation spanning the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and early Arab periods. On top of stratified remains and potsherds from the Iron Age, a stratum dating to the Hellenistic and early Roman periods was found, featuring structures constructed from hewn stones, stone floors,

5800-441: The coastal plain for a battle against a Seleucid army: He raised from the land a force of twenty thousand picked warriors and cavalrymen, and they marched out against Kendebaios. They spent the night at Modein. On rising in the morning, they marched out into the plain. There, a large force of infantry and cavalry confronted them. Between the two armies there was a rushing brook. The town is briefly mentioned in 2 Maccabees 13 , but

5900-671: The context of early Christianity . A careful reading of Josephus's writings and years of excavation allowed Ehud Netzer , an archaeologist from Hebrew University , to discover what he considered to be the location of Herod's Tomb , after searching for 35 years. It was above aqueducts and pools, at a flattened desert site, halfway up the hill to the Herodium , 12 km south of Jerusalem—as described in Josephus's writings. In October 2013, archaeologists Joseph Patrich and Benjamin Arubas challenged

6000-520: The difference between history and philosophy by saying, "[T]hose that read my book may wonder how it comes to pass, that my discourse, which promises an account of laws and historical facts, contains so much of philosophy." In both works, Josephus emphasizes that accuracy is crucial to historiography. Louis H. Feldman notes that in Wars , Josephus commits himself to critical historiography, but in Antiquities , Josephus shifts to rhetorical historiography, which

6100-432: The entourage of Titus. There, he became a Roman citizen and client of the ruling Flavian dynasty . In addition to Roman citizenship , he was granted accommodation in the conquered Judaea and a pension. While in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all of his known works. Although he only ever calls himself "Josephus" in his writings, later historians refer to him as "Flavius Josephus", confirming that he adopted

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6200-484: The fall of Jerusalem , and the subsequent fall of the fortresses of Herodion, Macharont and Masada and the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the empire and the uprising in Cyrene . Together with the account in his Life of some of the same events, it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus's own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from

6300-400: The forested northern section, remnants of hewn-stone structures are surrounded by Byzantine-era pottery shards, while the southern part, now a cultivated field, yields predominantly Iron Age II pottery sherds, with fewer from the Roman and Byzantine periods. In 1995, a salvage excavation unveiled a Jewish rock-cut burial complex containing kokhim tombs and ossuaries inscribed with names in

6400-510: The founder of the Arabs , the connection of "Semites", "Hamites" and "Japhetites" to the classical nations of the world , and the story of the siege of Masada . Scholars debate about Josephus's intended audience. For example, Antiquities of the Jews could be written for Jews—"a few scholars from Laqueur onward have suggested that Josephus must have written primarily for fellow Jews (if also secondarily for Gentiles). The most common motive suggested

6500-497: The identification of the tomb as that of Herod. According to Patrich and Arubas, the tomb is too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features. Roi Porat, who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after the latter's death, stood by the identification. Josephus's writings provide the first-known source for many stories considered as Biblical history, despite not being found in the Bible or related material. These include Ishmael as

6600-421: The inscription "Modiʽim ( Μωδεειμ , Mōdeeim ) , now Moditha ( Greek : Μωδιθα ), whence came the Maccabees", is indicated with the customary symbol for a village on the map. The site is marked by two towers having a single entranceway. There are no literary references to Modiʽin or Moditha after the Byzantine period. Ancient texts indicate that Modi'in was strategically located near a major road, positioned at

6700-559: The lack of clear archaeological evidence and the absence of the ancient name's preservation. Historically, Qubur al-Yahud and Horvat HaGardi were associated with the Tombs of the Maccabees. However, scholars now dispute this connection, arguing that these sites date to later periods. The original site might have been destroyed during the Bar Kochba revolt and subsequently lost; the tombs remain undiscovered. The two sites historically connected with

6800-536: The life of Jesus of Nazareth . Josephus was always accessible in the Greek-reading Eastern Mediterranean. His works were translated into Latin, but often in abbreviated form such as Pseudo-Hegesippus 's 4th century Latin version of The Jewish War ( Bellum Judaicum ). Christian interest in The Jewish War was largely out of interest in the downfall of the Jews and the Second Temple, which

6900-574: The monument still stood in its day. Maximillian Kon's reconstruction suggests that the tomb was a rectangular structure built with ashlars, serving as a base for a second story consisting of seven towers surrounded by pilasters and crowned with pyramidal or conical tops. Similar architectural features are found in other monumental tombs across the Levant, such as the Tomb of Hamrath in As-Suwayda , Syria, and tombs in Hermel and Qalaat Faqra , Lebanon. A later passage describes Hasmonean forces late in Simon's reign gathering in Modi'in before descending to

7000-413: The name el-Midieh solely with the Arab village of the same name . This led them to identify the location of Modi'in either at Tel er-Ras, an archaeological tell located to the east of the village, or within the village itself. A survey conducted by Israel Finkelstein and his team at Tell er-Ras uncovered pottery dating back to the Iron Age and later periods. Zissu and Perry, describing Tell er-Ras as

7100-404: The near-total razing of the city and the destruction of the Second Temple . Josephus recorded the Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66–70), including the siege of Masada . His most important works were The Jewish War ( c.  75 ) and Antiquities of the Jews ( c.  94). The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of

7200-543: The northern part of modern Modi'in. Surveys and excavations conducted there in the 2000s uncovered several settlement layers, with a Crusader fortress atop the hill. The excavators, Shimon Gibson and Egon Lass, suggested to identify the site with ancient Modi'in. While the hill has a commanding view of the surroundings, excavations have not yielded substantial evidence of a Second Temple Period settlement, and Hellenistic remains are uncommon. Scholars like Zissu and Perry expressed reluctance in accepting this identification due to

7300-458: The patronage of Romans. The works of Josephus provide information about the First Jewish–Roman War and also represent literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and late Temple Judaism. Josephan scholarship in the 19th and early 20th centuries took an interest in Josephus's relationship to the sect of the Pharisees . Some portrayed him as a member of

7400-696: The people of Tiberias appealed to King Agrippa 's forces to protect them from the insurgents. Josephus trained 65,000 troops in the region. Josephus also contended with John of Gischala who had also set his sight over the control of Galilee. Like Josephus, John had amassed to himself a large band of supporters from Gischala (Gush Halab) and Gabara , including the support of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Josephus fortified several towns and villages in Lower Galilee , among which were Tiberias, Bersabe , Selamin , Japha , and Tarichaea , in anticipation of

7500-475: The philosophical school of the Pharisees as a matter of deference, and not by willing association. The works of Josephus include useful material for historians about individuals, groups, customs, and geographical places. However, modern historians have been cautious of taking his writings at face value. For example, Carl Ritter , in his highly influential Erdkunde in the 1840s, wrote in a review of authorities on

7600-454: The prediction came true, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine. Josephus wrote that his revelation had taught him three things: that God, the creator of the Jewish people, had decided to "punish" them; that "fortune" had been given to the Romans; and that God had chosen him "to announce the things that are to come". To many Jews, such claims were simply self-serving. In 71 AD, he went to Rome as part of

7700-486: The primary source for the chain of Jewish high priests during the Second Temple period. A few of the Jewish customs named by him include the practice of hanging a linen curtain at the entrance to one's house, and the Jewish custom to partake of a Sabbath-day 's meal around the sixth-hour of the day (at noon). He notes also that it was permissible for Jewish men to marry many wives ( polygamy ). His writings provide

7800-789: The pyramids he contrived an elaborate setting: he surrounded them with massive pillars on which he places full suits of armor as a perpetual memorial; besides the full suits of armor, there were carved ships, intended to be seen by all who sailed the sea. This tomb, which he erected in Modein, still exists today. According to 1 Maccabees, Simon designated the monument for the interment of his father, mother and four brothers. The monument's description mentioned elaborate architectural features, including pyramids (or nefashot , signifying sepulchral monuments typically situated near or above underground tombs), sculptured armaments or panoplies representing military weaponry, and maritime representations, all adhering to Hellenistic aesthetic norms . The book states that

7900-409: The reference is not considered very reliable. 2 Maccabees , an independent work separate from 1 Maccabees, was probably written by an Egyptian Jew who does not appear to be very familiar with the geography of Judea due to a number of geographic blunders and implausibilities. According to it, during a campaign by regent Lysias , the army of Judas Maccabeus camped near Modein, then attacked and defeated

8000-421: The release of some Jewish priests. Upon his return to Jerusalem, at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War , Josephus was appointed the military governor of Galilee . His arrival in Galilee, however, was fraught with internal division: the inhabitants of Sepphoris and Tiberias opted to maintain peace with the Romans; the people of Sepphoris enlisted the help of the Roman army to protect their city, while

8100-434: The remains of an ancient settlement encompassing an area of 8 hectares. On the slopes of Khirbet el Hammam, now dissected by the "Patrol Road" which follows an ancient road, there are layered remnants of ancient architecture concealed beneath debris, comprising hewn stones, architectural remnants, and cisterns. Adjacent to this, pottery from the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods, along with tesserae , are scattered. In

8200-550: The rest of his days from his change of side. In the Preface to Jewish Wars , Josephus criticizes historians who misrepresent the events of the Jewish–Roman War , writing that "they have a mind to demonstrate the greatness of the Romans, while they still diminish and lessen the actions of the Jews." Josephus states that his intention is to correct this method but that he "will not go to the other extreme ... [and] will prosecute

8300-486: The same events that Josephus narrated. An Italian Jew writing in the 10th century indirectly brought Josephus back to prominence among Jews: he authored the Yosippon , which paraphrases Pseudo-Hegesippus's Latin version of The Jewish War , a Latin version of Antiquities , as well as other works. The epitomist also adds in his own snippets of history at times. Jews generally distrusted Christian translations of Josephus until

8400-466: The sect and as a traitor to the Jewish nation—a view which became known as the classical concept of Josephus. In the mid-20th century, a new generation of scholars challenged this view and formulated the modern concept of Josephus. They consider him a Pharisee but describe him in part as patriot and a historian of some standing. In his 1991 book, Steve Mason argued that Josephus was not a Pharisee but an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became associated with

8500-428: The structure likely originated as a Christian structure in the Byzantine period, dating back to the fifth century AD. He proposed that it could have served as a Christian mausoleum commemorating the Maccabees' burial place, a theory supported by Eusebius' mention of the tombs of the Maccabees still being shown in his time. The theory that the al-Qal'a structure originated as a Christian structure may have been regarded as

8600-520: The survivors committed suicide. According to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 AD. The Romans (commanded by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus, both subsequently Roman emperors ) asked the group to surrender, but they refused. According to Josephus's account, he suggested a method of collective suicide; they drew lots and killed each other, one by one, and Josephus happened to be one of two men that were left who surrendered to

8700-528: The term may be used for a burial vault below a larger facility, such as a church. The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, California, for example, has 6,000 sepulchral and cinerary urn spaces for interments in the lower level of the building. It is known as the "crypt mausoleum". In Europe, these underground vaults are sometimes called crypts or catacombs . A chapel mausoleum or mausoleum chapel in

8800-500: The tombs of the Maccabees. Guided by a shepherd, they arrived at the Qubur el-Yahud tombs, where they lit Hanukkah candles, marking the start of a tradition of pilgrimage and candle-lighting at the site. Over the following decades, the tombs became a pilgrimage destination, associated with Zionist ideals, and inspired literary works. In 1937, members of the Maccabi movement organized a race from

8900-499: The tombs to Tel Aviv, carrying a torch lit above the site, a tradition continued after the Six-Day War , establishing Qubur el-Yahud as the official "Tombs of the Maccabees" site marked on maps alongside the name "Modi'im". Scholars have highlighted that the tombs are actually shaft tombs characteristic of the Byzantine period, indicating that they cannot be the original burial complex of the Hasmonean family built centuries earlier, in

9000-454: The tombs, include the "Tombs of the Maccabees" (Qubur al-Yahud) and Horvat HaGardi/Sheikh al-Garbawi. One location historically linked to the Tombs of the Maccabees is a site known in Arabic as "Qubur al-Yahud", meaning "Tombs of the Jews" (31° 55′ 46″ N, 34° 59′ 40″ E). In December 1908, during the Hanukkah holiday, students and teachers from Herzliya Gymnasium journeyed to the area seeking

9100-598: The truth of those actions in their writings", those writings being the history of the Jews. In terms of some of his sources for the project, Josephus says that he drew from and "interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures" and that he was an eyewitness to the wars between the Jews and the Romans, which were earlier recounted in Jewish Wars . He outlines Jewish history beginning with the creation, as passed down through Jewish historical tradition. Abraham taught science to

9200-465: The whole, a man that will peruse this history, may principally learn from it, that all events succeed well, even to an incredible degree, and the reward of felicity is proposed by God." After inserting this attitude, Josephus contradicts Berossus: "I shall accurately describe what is contained in our records, in the order of time that belongs to them ... without adding any thing to what is therein contained, or taking away any thing therefrom." He notes

9300-476: The world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Greek and Roman audience. These works provide insight into first-century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity . Josephus's works are the chief source next to the Bible for the history and antiquity of ancient Israel , and provide an independent extra-biblical account of such figures as Pontius Pilate , Herod the Great , John the Baptist , James, brother of Jesus , and Jesus of Nazareth . Josephus

9400-687: Was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain "upper barbarians"—usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia —in his "paternal tongue" ( War I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language . In AD 78 he finished a seven-volume account in Greek known as the Jewish War ( Latin Bellum Judaicum or De Bello Judaico ). It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of

9500-458: Was born into one of Jerusalem's elite families. He was the second-born son of Matthias, a Jewish priest . His older full-blooded brother was also, like his father, called Matthias. Their mother was an aristocratic woman who was descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty . Josephus's paternal grandparents were a man also named Joseph(us) and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman—distant relatives of each other. Josephus's family

9600-513: Was located in the Arab village of al-Midya. Forner theorized that this site housed the burial grounds of the Hasmonean family, citing phonetic resemblances in place names and the village's close proximity to Lod , reachable within a two-hour walk. In the summer of 1909, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi visited al-Midya, which he referred to as Modiʽim, as well as Qubur el-Yahud. Early scholars, including Gustaf Dalman , Père Félix-Marie Abel, and Michael Avi-Yonah , along with subsequent experts, initially associated

9700-519: Was situated in a village near Jerusalem called Midʽa, probably the modern al-Midya . In the early 19th century, Rabbi Joseph Schwarz proposed that Modiʽin was situated at Mount Midan near Tzoba, drawing connections from the similarity of names and the fifteen-mile distance from Jerusalem mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud . In 1866, Franciscan monk Emmanuel Forner wrote in Le Monde that Modiʽin

9800-520: Was the norm of his time. Feldman notes further that it is significant that Josephus called his later work "Antiquities" (literally, archaeology) rather than history; in the Hellenistic period, archaeology meant either "history from the origins or archaic history." Thus, his title implies a Jewish peoples' history from their origins until the time he wrote. This distinction is significant to Feldman, because "in ancient times, historians were expected to write in chronological order," while "antiquarians wrote in

9900-549: Was wealthy. He descended through his father from the priestly order of the Jehoiarib , which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem . Josephus calls himself a fourth-generation descendant of " High Priest Jonathan", referring to either Jonathan Apphus or Alexander Jannaeus . He was raised in Jerusalem and educated alongside his brother. In his mid twenties, he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for

10000-672: Was widely considered divine punishment for the crime of killing Jesus . Improvements in printing technology (the Gutenberg Press ) led to his works receiving a number of new translations into the vernacular languages of Europe, generally based on the Latin versions. Only in 1544 did a version of the standard Greek text become available in French, edited by the Dutch humanist Arnoldus Arlenius . The first English translation, by Thomas Lodge , appeared in 1602, with subsequent editions appearing throughout

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