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124-476: The name Mochlos also applies to the small fishing village and resort located on the main island of Crete, opposite Mochlos island. Only 150 metres separates them. The island is administered from Tourloti which is only 9 km (6 mi) away. Mochlos was first excavated by Richard Seager in 1908 at the western end of the island, where a prepalatial cemetery was found. At that time, tombs, pithos burials and pit graves were uncovered, as well as two large tombs at

248-475: A Home of Archaeology in Oxford . Already the great frontage building had been erected. Evans took it in the direction of being an archaeology museum. He insisted the artefacts be transferred back to the museum, negotiated for and succeeded in acquiring Fortnum's collections, later gave his father's collections to the museum, and finally, bequeathed his own Minoan collections, not without the intended effect. Today it has

372-454: A brick terraced house built for the purpose near the mill, which came to be called the "red house" because it lacked the sooty patina of the other houses. Harriet called her husband "Jack." Grandmother Evans called Arthur Evans "darling Trot," asserting in a note that, compared to his father, he was "a bit of a dunce." In 1856, with Harriet's declining health and Jack's growing reputation and prosperity, they moved into Harriet's childhood home,

496-473: A brief adoption of horned stands in cooking pot production, primarily used during the EM II period. These features have not been identified elsewhere beyond Knossos and surrounding regions. Cups had reduced in size for it to be used by one person. The vast majority of these Minoan tripod cooking pots had deep featured bodies, usually being supported with three legs with either horizontal handles or vertical handles with

620-528: A bull. Evans dubbed the civilisation once inhabiting this great palace the Minoan civilisation. By 1903, most of the palace was excavated, bringing to light an advanced city containing artwork and many examples of writing. Painted on the walls of the palace were numerous scenes depicting bulls, leading Evans to conclude that the Minoans did indeed worship the bull. In 1905 he finished excavations. He then proceeded to have

744-650: A coming-of-age rite, the Boxer Rhyton (Hagia Triada), showing boxing scenes, the Sanctuary Rhyton , depicting a peak sanctuary to the "mistress of animals" and featuring birds and leaping goats, and others. Around 1450 BCE, the beginning of LM II, the Mycenaean Greeks must have moved into the palace of Knossos. They were well-established by 1400, if the Linear B tablets can be dated to then. The resulting LM II culture

868-605: A condition of unacceptability to the local regime within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He did not see Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina as an improvement over Ottoman. He wrote: "The people are treated not as a liberated but as a conquered and inferior race...." The Evans's sentiments were followed by acts of personal charity: they took in an orphan, invited a blind woman to dinner every night. Finally Evans wrote some public letters in favour of an insurrection. Evans

992-632: A correspondent, sending him back to the Balkans in 1877. He reported on the suppression of the Christian insurrectionists by the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire, and yet was treated by that empire as though he were an ambassador, despite his anti-Turkish sentiments. His older interests in antiquities continued. He collected portable artefacts, especially seal stones, at every opportunity, between sending back article after article to The Guardian . He also visited

1116-401: A crew, performed such hasty excavations as he could, crated the material and sent it home to John. Göttingen was not to Evans's liking. His quarters were stuffy, and the topics were of little interest to him, as he had already demonstrated. His letters speak mainly of the discrepancy between the poor peasants of the countryside and the institution of the wealthy in the town. His thinking was of

1240-484: A cup combined with a funnel-shaped stand could be set on a hard surface without spilling. As the Pyrgos site was a rock shelter used as an ossuary, some hypothesize ceremonial usage]. This type of pottery was black, grey or brown, and burnished, with some sort of incised linear pattern. It may have imitated wood. The EM II era in the Minoan civilization saw the start of tripod cooking pots at places like Knossos, with that came

1364-531: A fund. Apparently Evans did not bother to explain that he was the only contributor. He bought 1/4 of the site with first option to buy the rest later. The firman was still in deficit. Politics in Crete were taking a violent turn however. Anything might happen. Evans returned to London to wind up his affairs there and make sure the Ashmolean had suitable direction in the event of his further absence. In 1898, he became one of

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1488-406: A home for Margaret on the hill. She approved the location, so he convinced his father to put up the money. Then he had the tops of the pines cut, eight feet from the ground, on which he had built a platform and a log cabin to serve as a temporary quarters while the mansion was being built. His intent was to keep her from the cold, damp ground. Apparently she never lived there. They were away again for

1612-734: A journalist for the Manchester Guardian . He took a combative stance in his journalism, criticising the Ottoman Empire for its 'corruption' and the British empire for 'collaborating with the Ottomans.' Many officials of that empire had been Greek. Now they were working with the British to build a Cretan government. Evans accused these officials of being part of "the Turco-British regime". He deplored religiously motivated violence, be it from Muslims or Christians. His critical journalism caused friction with

1736-571: A letter to Freeman later in life, he was turned down thanks to the efforts of Benjamin Jowett and Charles Thomas Newton , two Oxford dons having a low opinion of his work there. In April–July of 1875 he attended a summer term at the University of Göttingen at the suggestion of Henry Montagu Butler , then headmaster at Harrow. Evans was to study with Reinhold Pauli , who had spent some years in Britain, and

1860-408: A mansion with a garden, where the children ran free. John Evans maintained his status as an officer in the company, which eventually became John Dickinson Stationery , but also became distinguished for his pursuits in numismatics , geology, and archaeology. His interest in geology came from an assignment by the company to study the diminishing water resources in the area with a view toward protecting

1984-420: A mosque. The next day they were promised clemency if they would disarm themselves. Handing over their weapons, they were lined up, having been told they were to be re-settled. Instead, they were shot, the only survivor being a small girl who had a cape thrown over her to conceal her. In his report to The Manchester Guardian in 1898, he described this ethnic cleansing of Cretan Muslim civilians by saying: But

2108-407: A native of Heraklion . Three weeks later Turkish authorities forced him to stop (at the time, Crete was under Ottoman occupation ). Almost three decades later, Evans heard of Kalokairinos' discovery. With private funding, he bought the surrounding rural area including the palace land. Sir Arthur Evan began his own excavations in 1900. Based on the structures and artefacts found there and throughout

2232-604: A republican Crete. Now that the restriction of the Ottoman firman was removed, there was a great rush on the part of all the other archaeologists to obtain first permission to dig from the new Cretan government. They soon found that Evans had a monopoly. Using the Cretan Exploration Fund, now being swollen by contributions from others, he paid off the debt for the land. Then he ordered stores from Britain. He hired two foremen, and they in turn hired 32 diggers. He started work on

2356-446: A revolutionary bent. Deciding not to stay, he left there to meet Lewis for another trip to Old Herzegovina . That decision marked the end of his formal education. Herzegovina was then in a state of insurrection . The Ottomans were using bashi-bazouks to try to quell it. Despite subsequent events, there is no evidence that the young Evans might have had ulterior motives at this time, despite the fact that Butler had helped to educate half

2480-530: A salubrious climate. Travelling there to test the hypothesis and perhaps improve his physical condition, he contracted smallpox and was gone in a few days. His oldest daughter did not survive him long. Always of precarious health herself – she is said to have had tuberculosis – she was too weak to prepare her father's papers for publication, so she delegated the task to a family friend, Reverend William Stephens. In October of that year Evans took her to visit Boar's Hill , near Oxford. He wanted to buy 60 acres to build

2604-534: A small opening on the top. They appear to be the most common way to cook. These cooking tripods were made from red firing clay with rock fragments to create the coarse touch that these pots had. The usage of animal goods can be identified in the tripod cooking pots, and the usage of plant byproducts can also be identified. The mixture of both can be found in the tripod cooking pots, but with plant byproducts being more evident than animal byproducts in some instances. There appears to be also found residue of beeswax in

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2728-538: Is a typical all-over leafy decoration, for which first workshop painters begin to be identifiable through their characteristic motifs; as with all Minoan art, no name ever appears. In LMIB, the Marine Style also emerges; in this style, perhaps inspired by frescoes, the entire surface of a pot was covered with sea creatures, octopus, fish and dolphins, against a background of rocks, seaweed and sponges ( Examples 1 , Examples 2 , Examples 3 , Examples 4 ). The Marine Style

2852-472: Is developing understanding of the details of production. The styles of pottery show considerable regional variation within Crete in many periods. Early Minoan pottery is broadly characterized by a large number of local wares with frequent Cycladic parallels or imports, suggesting a population of checkerboard ethnicity deriving from various locations in the eastern Aegean and beyond. Early Minoan pottery, to some extent, continued, and possibly evolved from,

2976-428: Is more free flowing with no distinct zones, because it shows sea creatures as floating, as they would in the ocean. The Marine style was the last purely Minoan style; towards the end of LMIB, all the palaces except Knossos were violently destroyed, as were many of the villas and towns. Dated to LM IA and following also are conical rhyta , or drinking cups, in steatite and also imitated in ceramic. ( Example ) Some of

3100-473: Is not a break with the Minoan past. Minoan traditions continue under a new administration. However, the vase forms and designs became more and more Mycenaean in character with a large variety of decoration. Style names have multiplied and depend to some degree on the author. The names below are only a few of the most common. Some authors just use the name "Mycenaean Koine"; that is, the Late Minoan pottery of Crete

3224-528: Is the type site for Aylesford-Swarling pottery or the Aylesford-Swarling culture, which included the first wheel-made pottery in Britain. Evans's conclusion that the site belonged to a culture closely related to the continental Belgae , remains the modern view, though the dating has been refined to the period after about 75 BC. His analysis of the site was still regarded as "an outstanding contribution to Iron Age studies" with "a masterly consideration of

3348-575: The Aegean islands and mainland Greece , in Cyprus , along coastal Syria and in Egypt , showing the wide trading contacts of the Minoans. The pottery includes vases, figurines, models of buildings, and burial urns called larnakes . Several pottery shapes, especially the rhyton cup, were also produced in soft stones such as steatite , but there was almost no overlap with metal vessels. The finest achievements came in

3472-731: The Carpathians , already in a state of political tension. They crossed borders illegally at high altitudes, "revolvers at the ready." This was Arthur Evans's first encounter with Turkish people and customs. He bought a set of clothes of a wealthy Turkish man, complete with red fez, baggy trousers, and an embroidered short-sleeved tunic. His detailed, enthusiastic account was published in Fraser's Magazine in May 1873. In 1873, he and Balfour tramped over Lapland , Finland, and Sweden. Everywhere he went he took copious anthropological notes and made numerous drawings of

3596-503: The Grotta-Pelos early Cycladic I culture. Some have suggested imports or immigrations. See also Hagia Photia . The painted parallel-line decoration of Ayios Onouphrios I Ware was drawn with an iron-red clay slip that would fire red under oxidizing conditions in a clean kiln but under the reducing conditions of a smoky fire turn darker, without much control over color, which could range from red to brown. A dark-on-light painted pattern

3720-506: The Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877) and on the side of Old Herzegovina insurgents. Freeman convinced Evans's tutors, George Kitchen and John Richard Green , and they convinced the Regius professor, William Stubbs , that, in view of his special other knowledge and interests, and his father's "high standing in learned society", Evans should not only be passed, but receive a first-class degree. It

3844-453: The Minoan site in eastern Crete, has mottled glaze effects, early experiments with controlling color, but the elongated spouts drawn from the body and ending in semicircular spouts show the beginnings of the tradition of Minoan elegance ( Examples 1 , Examples 2 ). The mottling was produced by uneven firing of the slip-covered pot, with the hottest areas turning dark. Considering that the mottling

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3968-508: The Mycenaean antiquities at hand with Heinrich. Meanwhile, the Ashmolean Museum , an adjunct of Oxford University , was in a chaotic state of transition. It had been a natural history museum, but the collections had been transferred to other museums. The lower floor housed some art and archaeology, but the upper floor was being used for university functions. John Henry Parker , appointed

4092-470: The classical authors . In 1840, instead of going to college, John started work in the mill owned by his maternal uncle, John Dickinson. He married his first cousin, Harriet, in 1850, which entitled him, in 1851, to a junior partnership in the family business. Profits from the mill would help fund Arthur Evans's excavations, restorations at Knossos, and resulting publications. For the time being they were an unpretentious and affectionate family. They moved into

4216-519: The eastern Mediterranean , Evans found that he needed to distinguish the Minoan civilisation from Mycenaean Greece . Evans was also the first to define the Cretan scripts Linear A and Linear B , as well as an earlier pictographic writing. Arthur Evans was born in Nash Mills , Hemel Hempstead , Hertfordshire , England, the first child of John Evans (1823–1908) and Harriet Ann Dickinson (born 1824),

4340-631: The horror vacui or "dread of emptiness". The whole field of decoration is filled densely. ( Examples ). The Stirrup Jar is especially frequent. Finally, in the Subminoan period, the geometric designs of the Dorians become more apparent. ( Example ) Minoan wares were already familiar from finds on the Greek mainland, and export markets like Egypt, before it was realized that they came from Crete. In most 19th-century literature they are described as "Mycenaean", and

4464-502: The sand dollar tests , and barnacle growths ( Example ). Barbotine ware features three-dimensional decorations, as well as the use of the ceramic slip. Ridges and protuberances of various types are seen on the surface of vessels. The earliest stages of Kamares ware also appear at this time. Scholars place Barbotine ware a bit earlier than the Kamares ware, Gisela Walberg places Barbotine Ware, with its thin walls and dynamic motifs, in

4588-473: The 10th century AD, including a Minoan town of the Neopalatial period (c. 1700-1430 BC), a Mycenaean village and its cemetery (c. 1400-1250 BC), and a Late Hellenistic settlement of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Details are to be found on the project's website. In addition to the Minoan town on the island, two buildings were uncovered behind the modern village of Mochlos. Both are artisans' quarters belonging to

4712-550: The Balkans. This view was refuted by Evans, who stated that Serbs in Kosovo and Metohija were facing terror from the hand of local Albanian population , with murders being a daily occurrence. Evans and his wife moved back to Oxford, renting a house there in January 1883. This period of unemployment was the only one of his life; he employed himself finishing up his Balkan studies. He completed his articles on Roman roads and cities there. It

4836-454: The Cyclades, while both FN and EM I settlements are contemporaneous, with EM I gradually replacing FN. Of the three possibilities, no immigration, total replacement of natives by immigrants, immigrants settling among natives, Hutchinson takes a compromise view: EM I types include Pyrgos Ware , also called "Burnished Ware". The major form was the " chalice ", or Arkalochori Chalice , in which

4960-466: The Early Kamares Ware phase. Spirals and whorls motifs appear in Minoan pottery from EM I onwards (Walberg), but they become especially popular during EM III. A new shape is the straight-sided cylindrical cup. MMIA wares and local pottery imitating them are found at coastal sites in the eastern Peloponnese , though not more widely in the Aegean until MMIB; their influence on local pottery in

5084-466: The Floral Style.) The floral style depicts palms and papyrus, with various kinds of lilies and elaborate leaves. It appears in both pottery and frescoes. One tradition of art criticism calls this the "natural style" or "naturalism" but another points out that the stylized forms and colors are far from natural. Green, the natural color of vegetation, appears rarely. Depth is represented by position around

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5208-652: The Freemans in Sarajevo whenever he could. A relationship with Freeman's eldest daughter, Margaret, had begun to blossom. In 1878 the Russians compelled a settlement of the conflict on appeal by the Serbs. The Ottomans ceded Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Austro-Hungarian Empire as a protectorate. In 1878, Evans proposed to Margaret Freeman, three years his senior, an educated and literate woman, and until now secretary for her father. The offer

5332-581: The French border to remove the dark cape he was wearing so that he would not be shot for a spy. Amiens was occupied by the Prussian army. Arthur found them prosaic and preoccupied with souvenir-hunting. He and Lewis hunted for stone-age artefacts in the gravel quarries, Arthur Evans remarking that he was glad the Prussians were not interested in flint artefacts. In 1872, he and Norman adventured into Ottoman territory in

5456-647: The Heraklion Museum. More recent finds are displayed in the Hagios Nikolaos and Siteia museums. Minoan pottery The Minoan civilization produced a wide variety of richly decorated Minoan pottery . Its restless sequence of quirky maturing artistic styles reveals something of Minoan patrons' pleasure in novelty while they assist archaeologists in assigning relative dates to the strata of their sites. Pots that contained oils and ointments, exported from 18th century BC Crete , have been found at sites through

5580-583: The MM IB, but other "handmade" methods of forming the body remained in use, and were needed for objects with sculptural shapes. Ceramic glazes were not used, and none of the wares were fired to very high temperatures, remaining earthenware or terracotta . All of these characteristics remain true of later Greek pottery throughout its great period. The finest wares often have very thin-walled bodies. The excavation of an abandoned LM kiln at Kommos (the port of Phaistos ), complete with its "wasters" (malformed pots),

5704-568: The Middle Minoan period, with the palace pottery called Kamares ware , and the Late Minoan all-over patterned "Marine Style" and "Floral Style". These were widely exported around the Aegean civilizations and sometimes beyond, and are the high points of the Minoan pottery tradition. The most comprehensive collection is in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum on Crete. The traditional chronology for dating Minoan civilization

5828-836: The Minoan town. One was used for crafting bronze, ivory and stone. The other was for making pottery. The Mycenaean cemetery was excavated above the artisans' quarter on the hill above, and a Minoan farmhouse was uncovered at Chalinomouri at the far eastern end of the Mochlos plain. Some excavations continue, but the core work on the project is study and publication of data. Ten Late Minoan I metal hoards were recently excavated at Mochlos. Among them are foundry hoards, traders' hoards and ceremonial assemblages. Lead isotope analyses indicate that copper oxhide ingots and fragments from these hoards originated in Cyprus. Large quantities of Early Minoan gold jewelry were excavated at Mochlos in 1908 and are on display in

5952-645: The Municipium S. They knew that the region, a part of the Ottoman Empire , was under martial law and that the Christians were in a state of insurrection against the Muslim beys placed over them. Some Ottoman troops were in the country in support of the beys, but mainly the beys were using irregular forces, the bashi-bazouks , loosely attached to the Ottoman military. Their notorious cruelty, which they practised against

6076-511: The Northern and Northeastern sections of the island. Another EM I type, Incised Ware , also called Scored Ware , were hand-shaped, round-bottomed, dark-burnished jugs ( Example ) and bulbous cups and jars (" pyxes "). Favored decor was incised line patterns, vertical, horizontal or herring-bone. These pots are from the north and northeast of Crete and appear to be modeled after the Kampos Phase of

6200-527: The Serbs or the Ottomans but they did provoke the neighbouring Austro-Hungarian Empire and spent a night in "a wretched cell". After deciding to lodge in a good hotel in Slavonski Brod on the border, having judged it safer than Bosanski Brod across the Sava River, they were observed by an officer who saw their sketches and concluded they might be Russian spies. Politely invited by two other officers to join

6324-505: The adventurer-archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann at Mycenae and Tiryns . The small ruin of Knossos spanned 5 acres (2.0 ha) and the palace had a maze-like quality that reminded Evans of the labyrinth described in Greek mythology . In the myth, the labyrinth had been built by King Minos to hide the Minotaur , a half-man half-bull creature that was the offspring of Minos's wife, Pasiphae, and

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6448-627: The area began in 1989. Organized as a Greek-American excavation under the auspices of the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, it is one of the longest Greek-American collaborations in the history of the School. Professors Jeffrey S. Soles from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and Costis Davaras from the University of Athens are co-directors. It has uncovered remains dating from 3100 BC to

6572-542: The ceramic ware. During LMII, Mycenean influence became apparent. The vase forms at Knossos are similar to those on the mainland. The Palace Style showcased by them adapts elements of the previous styles but also adds features, such as the practice of confining decor in reserves and bands, emphasizing the base and shoulder of the pot and the movement towards abstraction ( Examples 1 , Examples 2 , Examples 3 ). This style started in LM II and went on into LM III. The palace style

6696-420: The church of St. Sophia, which lies on a hill about half an hour above the village, and then and there dispatched—the men cut to pieces, the women and children shot. A young girl who had fainted, and was left for dead, alone lived to tell the tale. Prince George was keen to avoid such massacres, and establish a functioning government on the island. In 1899 a cross-confessional government was established as part of

6820-420: The circle of watchers. During his year of tending to the details of Youlbury, administering the Ashmolean, and writing some minor papers, he had also discovered the script on some other jewellery that came to the museum from Myres in Crete. He announced that he had concluded to a Mycenaean hieroglyphic script of about 60 characters. Shortly he wrote to his friend and patron at the Ashmolean, Charles Fortnum, that he

6944-468: The company from lawsuits. The mill consumed large amounts of water, which was also needed for the canals. He became an expert and a legal consultant. John became a distinguished antiquary , publishing numerous books and articles. In 1859, he conducted a geological survey of the Somme Valley with Joseph Prestwich . His connections and invaluable advice were indispensable to Arthur Evans's career throughout

7068-422: The continent, seeking out circumstances that might be considered dangerous by some. In June 1871, he and Lewis visited Hallstatt , where his father had excavated in 1866, adding some of the artefacts to his collection. Arthur Evans had made himself familiar with these. Subsequently, they went on to Paris and then to Amiens . The Franco-Prussian War had just concluded the month before. Arthur Evans had been told at

7192-477: The daughter of John's employer and maternal uncle, John Dickinson (1782–1869) , the inventor and founder of Messrs John Dickinson, a paper mill. John Evans came from a family of men who were both educated and intellectually active but undistinguished by either wealth or aristocratic connection. His father, Arthur Benoni Evans , Arthur Evan's grandfather, had been headmaster of Dixie Grammar School at Market Bosworth , Leicestershire. John knew Latin and could quote

7316-518: The final examinations on modern history. Despite his extensive knowledge of ancient history, classics, archaeology, and what would be termed today cultural anthropology, he apparently had not even read enough in his nominal subject to pass the required examination. He could answer no questions on topics later than the 12th century. He had convinced one of his examiners, Edward Augustus Freeman , of his talent. They were both published authors, they were both Gladstone liberals, and they were both interested in

7440-632: The finest Minoan assemblages outside Crete. Evans gave the Ilchester Lectures for 1884 on the Slavonic conquest of Illyricum, which remained unpublished. A cemetery of the British Iron Age discovered in 1886 at Aylesford in Kent was excavated under the leadership of Evans, and published in 1890. With the later excavation by others at Swarling not far away (discovery to publication was 1921–1925) this

7564-444: The first keeper in 1870, had the task of trying to manage it. His efforts to negotiate with the art collector Charles Drury Edward Fortnum , over housing his extensive collection, were being undercut by university administrators. In January 1884, Parker died. The museum was in the hands of its assistant keepers, one of whom, Edward Evans (no relation), was to be Arthur Evans' executive during Evans' extended absences. The strategy for

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7688-490: The first reporters of the ethnic cleansing of Turkish Cretans by Greek forces. In September 1898, the last of the Turkish troops withdrew from Crete. Their withdrawal did not however presage peace, and religious violence against the Muslim minority ensued. The British Army forbade travel for any reason with checkpoints set up to enforce this. Despite this Evans, Myres and Hogarth returned to Crete together, Evans in his capacity as

7812-605: The flower-covered hill in March 1900. Assisted by Duncan Mackenzie , who had already distinguished himself by his excavations on the island of Melos , and Mr Fyfe, an architect from the British School at Athens , Evans employed a large staff of local labourers as excavators, and began work in 1900. Within a few months they had uncovered a substantial portion of what he called the Palace of Minos. The term " palace " may be misleading; Knossos

7936-521: The forms of ceramic ones, Ventris and Chadwick were able to make a few new correlations. Arthur Evans Sir Arthur John Evans FRS FBA FREng (8 July 1851 – 11 July 1941) was a British archaeologist and pioneer in the study of Aegean civilization in the Bronze Age . The first excavations at the Minoan palace of Knossos on the Greek island of Crete began in 1877. They were led by Cretan Greek Minos Kalokairinos ,

8060-479: The geometric slip-painted designs of Koumasa Ware seem to have developed from the wares of Aghios Onouphrios. The designs are in red or black on a light background. Forms are cups, bowls, jugs and teapots ( Example: "Goddess of Myrtos" ). Also from EM IIA are the cylindrical and spherical pyxides called Fine Gray Ware or just Gray Ware , featuring a polished surface with incised diagonals, dots, rings and semicircles. The EM IIA and IIB Vasiliki Ware , named for

8184-528: The government of the United Kingdom. He was simply an adventurous young man bored with poring through books in a career into which he had been pushed against his real interests. The real adventure, in his mind, was the revolution in the Balkans. After resolving to leave Göttingen, Evans and Lewis planned to spy against the Principality of Montenegro in the rebellious mountain village of Bobovo, Pljevlja at

8308-679: The incident came to attention of Dr Makanetz, leader of the National Party of the Croatian Assembly, who happened to be in Brod. The next day he complained to the mayor. Evans and his brother were released with profuse apologies. They crossed the Sava into Bosnia, which Evans found so different that he regarded the Sava as the border between Europe and Asia. After a number of interviews with Turkish officials who attempted to dissuade them from travel on foot,

8432-643: The increasing use of motifs drawn from nature heralded the decline and end of the Kamares style. The Kamares featured whole-field floral designs with all elements linked together (Matz). In MMIII patterned vegetative designs, the Patterned Style , began to appear. This phase was replaced by individual vegetative scenes, which marks the start of the Floral Style . Matz refers to the "Age of Efflorescence", which reached an apogee in LM IA. (Some would include Kamares Ware under

8556-410: The local Final Neolithic (FN) without a severe break. Many suggest that Minoan civilization evolved in-situ and was not imported from the East. Its other main feature is its variety from site to site, which is suggestive of localism of Early Minoan social traditions. Studies of the relationship between EM I and FN have been conducted mainly in East Crete. There the Final Neolithic has affinities to

8680-413: The local administration, and he was forced to call on friends higher up in the government to avoid problems. Evans travelled widely in his reporting. He saw that the Muslim population was now on the decline, some being massacred, and some abandoning the island. One of the episodes he reported on was a massacre at Eteà. The Muslim villagers had been attacked by Christians in the night. They sought refuge in

8804-411: The locations of his youthful explorations in Zagreb . Finally he returned to live a hermit-like existence in the cabin he had built for her. The Ashmolean no longer interested him. He complained to Fortnum in a late, childish display of sibling rivalry, that his father had had another child, his half-sister Joan . After a year of grief the mounting tension in Crete began to attract his interest. Knossos

8928-431: The main scene. LMI marks the highwater of Minoan influence throughout the southern Aegean (Peloponnese, Cyclades, Dodecanese, southwestern Anatolia). Late Minoan pottery was widely exported; it has turned up in Cyprus, the Cyclades, Egypt and Mycenae. Fluent movemented designs drawn from flower and leaf forms , painted in reds and black on white grounds predominate, in steady development from Middle Minoan. In LMIB there

9052-417: The metalwork" by Sir Barry Cunliffe in 2012. In 1893, Evans's way of life as a married, middling archaeologist, puttering around the Ashmolean, and travelling extensively and perpetually on holiday with his beloved Margaret, came to an abrupt end, leaving emotional devastation in its wake and changing the course of his life. Freeman died in March 1892. Always of precarious health, he had heard that Spain had

9176-544: The most deliberate act of extermination was that perpetrated at Eteà. In this small village, too, the Moslem inhabitants, including the women and children, had taken refuge in the mosque, which the men defended for a while. The building itself is a solid structure, but the door of the small walled enclosure ... was finally blown in, and the defenders laid down their arms, understanding, it would appear, that their lives were to be spared. Men, women and children, they were all led forth to

9300-548: The museum now was to convert it to an art and archaeology museum, expanding the remaining collections. In November 1883, Fortnum wrote to Evans asking for his assistance in locating some letters in the Bodleian Library that would help to validate a noted ring in his collection; he did so on the advice of John Evans of the Society of Antiquaries . Unable to find the letters, Arthur Evans suggested Fortnum visit Oxford. Fortnum in fact

9424-471: The museum. "While the Keeper's salary was not generous, the conditions of residence were very liberal ... the keeper could and should travel to secure new acquisitions". But in 1908 at the age of 57 he resigned his position to concentrate on writing up his Minoan work. In 1912 he refused the opportunity to become president of the Society of Antiquaries , a position which his father had already held. But in 1914 at

9548-576: The natives, helped to turn the British Empire under W. E. Gladstone against the Ottoman Empire, as well as to attract Russian intervention at Serbian request. At the time of Evans' and Lewis' initial adventure, the Ottomans were still trying to lessen the threat of intervention by placating their neighbours. Evans sought and obtained permission to travel in Bosnia from its Turkish military governor. The two brothers experienced little difficulty with either

9672-457: The nearby Cyclades has been studied by Angelia G. Papagiannopoulou (1991). Shards of MM IIA pottery have been recovered in Egypt and at Ugarit . Kamares Ware was named after finds in the cave sanctuary at Kamares on Mt. Ida in 1890. It is the first of the virtuoso polychrome wares of Minoan civilization, though the first expressions of recognizably proto-Kamares decor predate the introduction of

9796-432: The night in a cell. On the way to the holding cell the two young men were followed by a large crowd, whom Evans lost no opportunity to harangue, even though they understood only German. He threatened the authorities in the name of the British fleet, which, he asserted, would sail up the Sava river. He demanded the mayor, offered the jailer a bribe for food and water, but went into the cell unfed and without water. Meanwhile,

9920-434: The palace of Knossos. An average pithos held about 1100 pounds of fluid. Perhaps because of the weight, pithoi were not stored on the upper floors. New styles emerge at this time: an Incised Style (see above), and the tactile Barbotine ware, featuring the relief decoration studded with knobs and cones of applied clay in bands, waves and ridges. Such decorations are sometimes reminiscent of the marine-derived features such as

10044-487: The palaces. There is some evidence that women were also potters. Archaeologists seeking to understand the conditions of production have drawn tentative comparisons with aspects of both modern Cretan rural artisans and the better-documented Egyptian and Mesopotamian Bronze Age industries. In Linear B the word for potter is "ke-ra-me-u". Technically, slips were widely used, with a variety of effects well understood. The potter's wheel appears to have been available from

10168-737: The passport from the pasha prevailed. They were given an escort – one man, enough to establish authority – as far as Derventa . From there they travelled directly south to Sarajevo and from there to Dubrovnik (Ragusa) on the coast, in Dalmatia . In Sarajevo they learned that the region through which they had just passed was now "plunged in civil war". Home again, Evans wrote of his experiences, working from his extensive notes and drawings, publishing Through Bosnia and Herzegovina , which came out in two editions, 1876 and 1877. He became overnight an expert in Balkan affairs. The Manchester Guardian hired him as

10292-505: The people, places and artefacts. During the Christmas holidays of 1873, Evans catalogued a coin collection being bequeathed to Harrow by John Gardner Wilkinson , the father of British Egyptology , who was too ill to work on it himself. The headmaster had suggested "my old pupil, Arthur John Evans – a remarkably able young man." Arthur John Evans graduated from Oxford at the age of 24 in 1874, but his career had come near to foundering during

10416-447: The police chief and produce passports, Evans replied, "Tell him that we are Englishmen and are not accustomed to being treated in this way". The officers insisted and, interrupting the chief at dinner, Evans suggested he should have come to the hotel in person to request the passports. The chief, in a somewhat less than civil manner, won the argument about whether he had the right to check the passports of Englishmen by inviting them to spend

10540-620: The pot is densely covered, but sometimes the space is partitioned by bands. One variety features extravagantly thin bodies and is called Eggshell Ware ( Example 1 , Example 2 ). Four stages of Kamares ware were identified by Gisela Walberg (1976), with a "Classic Kamares" palace style sited in MM II, especially in the palace complex of Phaistos. New shapes were introduced, with whirling and radiating motifs .( Examples 1 , Examples 2 , Examples 3 , Examples 4 , Examples 5 , Examples 6 , Examples 7 , Examples 8 , Examples 9 , Examples 10 ) In MMIIB,

10664-503: The potter's wheel. Finer clay, thrown on the wheel, permitted more precisely fashioned forms, which were covered with a dark-firing slip and exuberantly painted with slips in white, reds and browns in fluent floral designs , of rosettes or conjoined coiling and uncoiling spirals. Designs are repetitive or sometimes free-floating, but always symmetrically composed. Themes from nature begin here with octopuses, shellfish, lilies, crocuses and palm-trees, all highly stylized. The entire surface of

10788-417: The progress, so to speak, of the " sick man of Europe ", a metaphor of the dying Ottoman Empire. The various pashas , eager not to offend the native Cretan parliament, were encouraging foreigners to apply for a firman to excavate, and then not granting any. The Cretans were afraid of the Ottomans' removing any artefacts to Istanbul . The Ottoman method of stalling was to require any would-be excavators to buy

10912-429: The recognition and analysis of styles and periods had gone some way on this assumption. Only in the 1890s were the first finds on Crete recognised and published, from a cave at Kamares. These were found by a local archaeologist who allowed the young John Myres to publish them; Myres had realized that they were the same ware as finds in Egypt published by Flinders Petrie . For several decades analysis of Minoan pottery

11036-420: The recommendation that he was "a boy of powerful original mind." At Brasenose College, he read Modern History, a new curriculum, which was nearly a disaster, as his main interests were in archaeology and classical studies. His summertime activities with his brothers and friends were perhaps more important to his subsequent career. Having been given an ample allowance by his father, he went looking for adventure on

11160-477: The remainder of his long life. Arthur Evans's mother, Harriet, died after childbirth in 1858 when he was seven. He had two brothers, Lewis (1853) and Philip Norman (1854), and two sisters, Harriet (1857) and Alice (1858). He would remain on excellent terms with all of them all of his life. He was raised by a stepmother, Fanny (Frances), née Phelps, with whom he also got along very well. She had no children of her own and also predeceased her husband. John's third wife

11284-592: The rest of his life he wrote on black-bordered stationery. He went ahead with the mansion he had planned to build for Margaret on Boars Hill in Berkshire (now Oxfordshire ), against the advice of his father, who regarded it as wasteful and useless. He called it Youlbury , after the name of the locality. After Margaret's death Evans wandered aimlessly around Liguria ostensibly looking at Terramare Culture sites and for Neolithic remains in Ligurian caves. Then he revisited

11408-479: The rhyta are ornate libation vessels, such as the noted " Bull's-head Rhyton " found at Knossos. The Bull's Head Rhyton , however, was a specific type of which many instances have been found. The bull's head is found in ceramic as well. Other noted stone vases of LM IA and II are the "Harvester Vase" View 1 , View 3 , View 4 , from Hagia Triada , which depicts a harvest procession, " the Chieftain Cup ", depicting

11532-453: The rise of elite wares, emphasizing refinements and novelty, so that palace and provincial pottery become differentiated. The forms of the best wares were designed for table and service . In the palace workshops, the introduction from the Levant of the potter's wheel in MM IB enabled perfectly symmetrical bodies to be thrown from swiftly revolving clay. The well-controlled iron-red slip that

11656-488: The room called the throne room (due to the throne-like stone chair fixed in the room) repainted by a father-son team of Swiss artists, Émile Gilliéron Junior and Senior. While Evans based the recreations on archaeological evidence, some of the best-known frescoes from the throne room were almost complete inventions of the Gilliérons, according to his critics. All the excavations at Knossos were done on leave of absence from

11780-404: The sherds. Little is known about the way the pottery was produced, but it was probably in small artisanal workshops, often clustered in settlements near good sources of clay for potting. For many, potting may well have been a seasonal activity, combined with farming, although the volume and sophistication of later wares suggests full-time specialists, and two classes of workshop, one catering to

11904-461: The site from its native owners first. The owners in turn were coached to charge so much money that none would think it worthwhile to apply in such uncertain circumstances. Even the wealthy Schliemann had given up on the price in 1890 and had gone home to die in that year. In 1894, Evans became intrigued by the idea that the script engraved on the seal stones he had purchased before Margaret's death might be Cretan, and steamed off to Heraklion to join

12028-526: The time of their journey the strongest point of resistance in triple mountain ranges of Ljubišnja and Tara gorges . During the struggle in Bobovo on 15 August 1875 during the Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877) they were expelled from Province of Pljevlja by the Ottoman authorities and went to board a ship in the city of Dubrovnik via Pljevlja, a city with a large settlement from the Roman period, which Evans named as

12152-581: The tripod cooking pots. Most of these discoveries were found at Sissi. What that beeswax was used for is uncertain. This appears to potentially lead to the possibility of subtypes of these cooking pots. There is evidence that these pots started to show up during the EMI in the Hagia Photia; its appearance in the Hagia Photia during the second EMII period is questionable.   Most of these discoveries were located in

12276-464: The welfare of those around her, made a short life long." Evans placed on the grave a wreath he wove himself of ox-eye daisies (also known as marguerites) and wild broom , expressive of their innermost feelings, commemorating the event with a private poem, To Margaret my beloved wife , not published until after his death decades later: To his father he wrote: "I do not think anyone can ever know what Margaret has been to me." He never married again. For

12400-487: The western tip of the island. In the 1970s, Jeffrey Soles documented the tombs and cemetery uncovered by Seager. The cemetery was in use from Early Minoan I to Middle Minoan IA . According to Keith Branigan , "On present evidence, Mochlos was one of the largest Early Minoan settlements in Crete, much smaller than Knossos or Malia , but comparable to Phaistos and perhaps Palaikastro , and certainly much larger than Myrtos , or Vasiliki ." The modern excavations in

12524-662: The winter, Margaret to winter with her sister in Bordighera , Evans to Sicily to complete the last volume of the history he and Freeman had begun together. In February, Evans met John Myres , a student at the British School, in Athens . The two shopped the flea markets looking for antiquities. Evans purchased some seal stones inscribed with a mysterious writing, said to have come from Crete. Then he met Margaret in Bordighera. The two started back to Athens, but en route, in Alassio , Italy she

12648-597: Was "very restless" and must go to Crete. Arriving in Heraklion he did not join his friends immediately, but took the opportunity to examine the excavations at Knossos. Seeing the sign of the double axe almost immediately he knew that he was at the home of the script. He used the Cretan Exploration Fund, devised on the model of the Palestine Exploration Fund , to acquire the site. The owners would not sell to individuals, who could not afford it, but they would sell to

12772-460: Was a classical scholar, Maria Millington Lathbury . When he was 70, they had a daughter, Joan , who became an art historian . John Evans died in 1908 at 85, when Arthur Evans was 57. His close support and assistance was indispensable in excavating and conceptualising Minoan civilisation. After a preparatory school , he entered Harrow School in 1865 at the age of 14. He was co-editor of The Harrovian in his final year, 1869/70. At Harrow he

12896-409: Was a friend of Green. The study would be preparatory to doing research in modern history at Göttingen. The arrangement may have been meant as a remedial plan. On the way to Göttingen, Evans was sidetracked, unpropitiously for the modern history plan, by some illegal excavations at Trier. He had noticed that the tombs were being plundered surreptitiously. For the sake of preserving some artefacts, he hired

13020-715: Was accepted, to everyone's great satisfaction. Freeman spoke affectionately of his future son-in-law. The couple were married near the Freeman home in Wookey , Somerset, at the parish church. They took up residence in a Venetian villa Evans had purchased in Ragusa, Casa San Lazzaro, on the bluffs overlooking the Adriatic. One of their first tasks was to create a garden there. They lived happily, Evans pursuing his journalistic career, until 1882. Evans's continued stance in favour of native government led to

13144-674: Was added to the color repertory during MM I could be achieved only in insulated closed kilns that were free of oxygen or smoke. Any population center requires facilities in support of human needs and that is true of the palaces as well. Knossos had extensive sanitation, water supply and drainage systems, which is evidence that it was not a ceremonial labyrinth or large tomb. Liquid and granular necessities were stored in pithoi located in magazines, or storage rooms, and elsewhere. Pithoi make their earliest appearance just before MMI begins and continue into Late Minoan, becoming very rare by LMIII ( Examples 1 , Examples 2 ). About 400 pithoi were found at

13268-406: Was an intricate collection of over 1,000 interlocking rooms, some of which served as artisans' workrooms and food processing centres (e.g., wine presses). It served as a central storage point, and a religious and administrative centre. On the basis of the ceramic evidence and stratigraphy , Evans concluded that there was another civilisation on Crete that had existed before those brought to light by

13392-417: Was arrested in 1882, to be put on trial as a British agent provocateur stirring up further insurrection. His journalistic sources were not acceptable friendships to the authorities. He spent six weeks in prison awaiting trial, but at the trial nothing definitive could be proved. His wife was interrogated. She found most offensive the reading of her love letters before her eyes by a hostile police agent. Evans

13516-596: Was becoming dissatisfied with rivals for his collection, the South Kensington Museum , because of their "lack of a properly informed and competent person as keeper." Evans had the right qualifications and took the position of keeper at the Ashmolean when it was offered. In 1884, therefore, Evans, at the age of 34, was appointed Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum. He held a grand inauguration at which he outlined his planned changes, publishing it as The Ashmolean as

13640-406: Was blurry and he compensated by carrying a cane, which he called Prodger, to explore the environment. His wit was very sharp, too sharp for the administration, which stopped a periodical he had started, The Pen-Viper , after the first issue. Arthur matriculated on 9 June 1870 and attended Brasenose College, Oxford . His housemaster at Harrow, F. Rendall, had eased the way to his acceptance with

13764-563: Was controlled into a pattern, touching with hot coals was probably used to produce it. The effect was paralleled in cups made of mottled stone. In the latest brief transition (EM III), wares in eastern Crete begin to be covered in dark slip with light slip-painted decor of lines and spirals; the first checkered motifs appear; the first petallike loops and leafy bands appear, at Gournia (Walberg 1986). Rosettes appear and spiral links sometimes joined into bands. These motifs are similar to those found on seals . In north central Crete, where Knossos

13888-581: Was developed by Sir Arthur Evans in the early years of the 20th century AD. His terminology and the one proposed by Nikolaos Platon are still generally in use and appear in this article. For more details, see the Minoan chronology . Evans classified fine pottery by the changes in its forms and styles of decoration. Platon concentrated on the episodic history of the Palace of Knossos . A new method, fabric analysis, involves geologic analysis of coarse and mainly non-decorated sherds as though they were rocks. The resulting classifications are based on composition of

14012-567: Was essentially stylistic and typological, but in recent decades there has been a turn towards technical and socio-economic analysis. The Linear B tablets contain records of vessels made of various materials. The vessel ideograms are not so clear as to make correlation with discovered artifacts easy. Using a drawing of the "Contents of the Tomb of the Tripod Hearth" at Zafer Papoura from Evans' Palace of Minos , which depicts LM II bronze vessels, many in

14136-526: Was expelled from the country. Gladstone had been apprised of the situation immediately, but, as far as the public knew, did nothing. The government in Vienna similarly disavowed any knowledge of or connection to the actions of the local authorities. The Evans returned home to rent a house in Oxford, abandoning their villa, which became a hotel. However, Evans's reputation among the Slavs assumed unassailable proportions. He

14260-501: Was friends with Francis Maitland Balfour . They competed for the Natural History Prize; the outcome was a draw. They were both highly athletic, including riding and swimming, and also mountain climbing, during which activity Balfour was killed later in life. Evans was near-sighted, but refused to wear glasses. His close-up vision was better than normal, enabling him to see detail missed by others. Farther away his field of vision

14384-514: Was invited later to play a role in the formation of the pre-Yugoslav state. In 1941 the government of Yugoslavia sent representatives to his funeral. During Gascoyne-Cecil's first tenure as Prime Minister from 1885 to 1886, the English public held negative views of the Kingdom of Serbia and instead supported the Kingdom of Bulgaria . A Times correspondent said Serbia was the biggest threat to peace in

14508-660: Was mostly confined to Knossos. In the late manifestation of the palace style, fluent and spontaneous earlier motifs stiffened and became more geometrical and abstracted. Egyptian motifs such as papyrus and lotus are prominent. The Plain Style and Close Style developed in LM IIIA, B from the Palace Style. In the Close Style the Marine and Floral Styles themes continue, but the artist manifests

14632-505: Was now known to be a major site, thanks to Evans's old friend and fellow journalist in Bosnia, William James Stillman . Another old friend, Federico Halbherr , the Italian archaeologist and future excavator of Phaistos , was keeping him posted on developments at Knossos by mail. Archaeologists from Britain, France, Germany, Italy and the United States were in attendance at the site watching

14756-425: Was overtaken by a severe attack. On 11 March 1893, after experiencing painful spasms for two hours, she died with Evans holding her hand, of an unknown disease, perhaps tuberculosis, although the symptoms fit a heart attack also. He was 42; she, 45. Margaret was buried in the English cemetery at Alassio. Her epitaph says, in part, "Her bright, energetic spirit, undaunted by suffering to the last, and ever working for

14880-425: Was suggested that he apply to a new professorship of Classical Archaeology at Oxford. When he found out that Jowett and Newton were among the electors, he decided not to apply. He wrote to Freeman that to confine archaeology to classics was an absurdity. Instead he and Margaret travelled to Greece, seeking out Heinrich Schliemann at Athens. Margaret and Sophia had a visit for several hours, during which Evans examined

15004-662: Was the topic of much jesting; Green wrote to Freeman on 11 November 1875: "I am very sorry to have missed you, dear Freeman ... Little Evans – son of John Evans the great – has just come back from the Herzegovina which he reached by way of Lapland, having started from the Schools in excitement at the 'first' I wrung for him out of the obdurate Stubbs ..." In the spring of 1875 he applied for the Archaeological Travelling Studentship offered by Oxford, but, as he says in

15128-471: Was then applied. From this beginning, Minoan potters already concentrated on the linear forms of designs, perfecting coherent designs and voids that would ideally suit the shape of the ware. Shapes were jugs, two-handled cups and bowls. The ware came from north and south central Crete, as did Lebena Ware of the same general types but decorated by painting white patterns over a solid red painted background ( Example ). The latter came from EM I tombs. In EM IIA,

15252-441: Was to emerge, there is little similarity: dark on light linear banding prevails; footed goblets make their appearance ( Example ). The rise of the Minoan palaces at Knossos and Phaistos and their new type of urbanized, centralized society with redistribution centers required more storage vessels and ones more specifically suited to a range of functions. In palace workshops, standardization suggests more supervised operations and

15376-537: Was to some degree just a variety of widespread Mycenaean forms. The designs are found also on seals and ceilings, in frescoes and on other artifacts. Often Late Minoan pottery is not easily placed in sub-periods. In addition are imports from the neighboring coasts of the Mediterranean. Ceramic is not the only material used: breccia , calcite , chlorite , schist , dolomite and other colored and patterned stone were carved into pottery forms. Bronze ware appears imitating

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