Misplaced Pages

#701298

157-617: The 956-acre (387 ha) area is located directly across the Tennessee River from Lookout Mountain , site of an American Civil War battle. The archeological district is significant due to the prevalence of historic artifacts found within some of the most historically important Native American sites in the United States. Moccasin Bend was a part of the Trail of Tears and also played a vital role in

314-773: A U.S. Army Corps of Engineers project providing navigation on the Tombigbee River and a link to the Port of Mobile , enters the Tennessee River near the Tennessee-Alabama-Mississippi boundary. This waterway reduces the navigation distance from Tennessee, north Alabama, and northern Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico by hundreds of miles. The final part of the Tennessee's run is north through western Kentucky , where it separates

471-729: A Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a " trail of tears and death ". The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps. Alexis de Tocqueville , the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee , in 1831: In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil but somber and taciturn. There

628-538: A Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles. Other war chiefs such as Halleck Tustenuggee , Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse continued

785-522: A National Historic Landmark and its place on the National Register of Historic Places contains a plethora of sites with archeological, cultural, and historical significance. The primary significance of this area falls within the context of American Indian history and American Civil War history. The 12,000 years of human inhabitation have left a number of rare artifacts that contribute to this sites importance. The primary archeological site at Moccasin Bend

942-527: A difficult task. Despite these challenges, efforts are still being made to continue progress at Moccasin Bend and strive towards the goal of a unique experience through facilitated preservation, protection, and interpretation of the area. These efforts are largely spearheaded by the Friends of Moccasin Bend. While the Friends of Moccasin Bend and the National Park Service work with the city to move forward on

1099-527: A dollar a head (equal to $ 28.61 today) to cross the river on "Berry's Ferry" which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $ 3.43 today. They were not allowed passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cross and were forced to take shelter under "Mantle Rock", a shelter bluff on the Kentucky side, until "Berry had nothing better to do". Many died huddled together at Mantle Rock waiting to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals. The Cherokee filed

1256-512: A group of Indian nations collectively referred to as the " Five Civilized Tribes " (the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole nations), were living autonomously in what would later be termed the American Deep South . The process of cultural transformation from their traditional way of life towards a white American way of life as proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox

1413-513: A land exchange treaty with the Cherokee. After this, Jackson's political opponents Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams , who supported the Worcester decision, became outraged by Jackson's alleged refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. Author and political activist Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture, declaring his support of

1570-629: A lawsuit against the U.S. Government through the courthouse in Vienna , suing the government for $ 35 a head (equal to $ 1,001.44 today) to bury the murdered Cherokee. As they crossed southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, commissary agent for Moses Daniel's detachment, wrote: There is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over something like 8 or 12 inches [20 or 30 cm] thick. We are compelled to cut through

1727-534: A major highway for riverboats through the South, and today they are frequently used along the river. Major ports include Guntersville, Chattanooga , Decatur , Yellow Creek, and Muscle Shoals . This river has contributed greatly to the economic and industrial development of the Tennessee Valley as a whole. The economies of cities such as Decatur and Chattanooga would not be as dynamic as they are today, were it not for

SECTION 10

#1732855714702

1884-399: A man who believed creating fear in the native population was more desirable than cultivating friendship". In a message to Congress on the eve of Indian Removal, December 6, 1830, Jackson wrote that removal "will relieve the whole State of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama of Indian occupancy, and enable those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. It will separate

2041-521: A model airplane facility). The Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park were instrumental in this process. The organization, established a decade prior to the area's designation as a National Archeological District, remained active until 2017. According to their now decommissioned website, they worked alongside the National Park Service to develop "outstanding visitor experiences at one of America's newest national park areas." In addition, they supported

2198-464: A number of burial mounds and other artifacts. At this point in time, citizens in Chattanooga were only beginning to understand the impressive cultural and historical significance of the land. Prior to World War II, citizens of Lookout Mountain petitioned to have the city of Chattanooga purchase Moccasin Bend to be "as a park and pleasure resort for all the people of Chattanooga and Hamilton County." This

2355-561: A number of other Civil War sites located on the southern tip of Stringers Ridge. These sites were occupied by the Union Army during 1863. The historic roads that mark this period of time are still usable today, and multiple sites can be observed from Stringers Ridge. This organization was established in 1994 to serve as an advocacy group for the adoption of Moccasin Bend into the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. The organization

2512-539: A number of other amenities. The Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute was established in 1961 and continues to be in operation, although some park advocates hope for the mental health facility to be phased out. Additionally, the Moccasin Bend Golf Course, also established in the 1960s, remains in use to this day, and contributes to the fragmented nature of the park. Moccasin Bend is the site of

2669-589: A parking lot and restrooms. This site will serve as a vital access point for public visitors. The Blue Blazes Trail is a 1.5 mile hiking trail located within the National Archeological District. This trail existed before the Bend's designation as part of a National Park. Prior to the federal governments acquisition of this land, the Blue Blazes Trail, established by members of the Sierra Club,

2826-585: A shorter trip for river traffic going from the Tennessee to most of the Ohio River, and for traffic going down the Cumberland River toward Tennessee. The Tennessee River and its tributaries host some 102 species of mussel . Native Americans ate freshwater mussels. Potters of the Mississippian culture used crushed mussel shell mixed into clay to make their pottery stronger. A "pearl" button industry

2983-525: A tumultuous past regarding the best use of the land on Moccasin Bend, there are currently a wide range of activities and institutions that exist within the confines of Moccasin Bend. The area that is a part of the National Park Unit is technically part of the Northshore area of Chattanooga, but is disconnected from the heart of downtown. Much of the industries that entered the area during the second half of

3140-464: Is Hampton Place. This area contains two Late Mississippian towns that were perhaps visited by Spanish explorers, as revealed through the presence of Spanish artifacts. Prior to the Bend's designation as a National Archeological District, Hampton Place was heavily looted and vandalized, leaving little visible evidence of the once prominent archeological complex. Another important site within Moccasin Bend

3297-508: Is a 1,000 acre peninsula sitting on the edge of the Tennessee River . Most of the land on the peninsula became the property of the federal government, excluding the already existing facilities mentioned previously. This created a rather fragmented park with distinct and diverse parts. The core area of the District resides on the southern tip of the Bend. This area includes Civil War resources and important American Indian sites. Upon its adoption into

SECTION 20

#1732855714702

3454-694: Is approximately 652 miles (1,049 km) long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley . The river was once popularly known as the Cherokee River, among other names, as the Cherokee people had their homelands along its banks, especially in what are now East Tennessee and northern Alabama . Additionally, its tributary, the Little Tennessee River , flows into it from Western North Carolina and northeastern Georgia, where

3611-461: Is associated with Andrew Jackson's famous, though apocryphal, quote "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!" In reality, this quote did not appear until 30 years after the incident and was first printed in a textbook authored by Jackson critic Horace Greeley . Fearing open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against

3768-468: Is currently located on Moccasin Bend Road. The firing range includes a number of buildings and other structures. The area where the firing range is located sits within the 750 acre area of land that was donate by the city to the National Park Service. The Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park and other community advocates are currently in the process of convincing the city to relocate the firing range, allowing

3925-427: Is located on Hamm Road, a crucial gateway that runs through Moccasin Bend. It is surrounded by industrial tracts of land and is not connected to any other NPS-owned areas. This site, unlike most other tracts of land within the National Archeological District, is unlikely to contain archeological resources. This feature made it the desired location for the pending interpretive center, which would include development such as

4082-675: Is part of the Vulcan site, an important archaeological area. This fact must be considered in future management of the property. The Moccasin Bend Wastewater Treatment Facility is in very close proximity to the golf course and is a 184-acre tract of land. This was developed in 1961 and remains in constant use today. Due to the extensive delay in creating a National Park and protecting the land, there are an assortment of buildings, industries, and developed features within Moccasin Bend. The county firing range for law enforcement training

4239-423: Is projected to have a new lock built, but it has been delayed due to a lack of funding. The river not only has many economic functions, such as the boat building industry and transportation, but it also provides water and natural resources to those who live near the river. Many of the major ports on the river are connected to a settlement that was started because of its proximity to the river. On October 15, 2022,

4396-525: Is public access to the trails through the trailhead, adjacent to a gravel lot. Brown's Ferry Federal Road is a 98-acre tract of land owned by the National Park Service. The area was the former site of Moccasin Bend Speedway and also contains portions of land that were part of the John Brown Reservation. The site is now home to a 1.2 mile roundtrip hike that traverses over a part of the tract that

4553-535: Is the Mallards Dozen Site, an area that contains remnants of Middle Woodland civilization. Most of the archeological evidence contributing to this knowledge is not currently visible. However, portions of the site are accessible via the Blue Blazes Trail. The Vulcan Site includes remains from the Archaic and Woodland periods. This includes a Late Archaic period house that is dated to 1335 B.C.. considered to be one of

4710-643: The American Civil War . In 2003, with the help of U.S. Representative Zach Wamp , the Friends of Moccasin Bend, and community leaders, the Moccasin Bend National Archeological District was created as part of the Chickamauga National Military Park . This designation made Moccasin Bend the first and only National Archeological District in the entire National Park Service. The area of land known as Moccasin Bend

4867-823: The Brandywine , the Reindeer , the Talma , and the Cleopatra ) would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations. The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for about 60 miles (100 km) to Arkansas Post. There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock. When they reached Little Rock,

Moccasin Bend - Misplaced Pages Continue

5024-685: The Chattanooga Campaign . "According to Civil War historian, James McPherson, Chattanooga had great strategic value, for the only railroads linking the eastern and western parts of the Confederacy converged there in a gap carved through the Cumberland Mountains by the Tennessee River . Union forces could divide the eastern portion by penetrating into Georgia via Chattanooga." After the Civil War, some farmers who had been dislocated returned to

5181-709: The Cherokee , Muscogee , Seminole , Chickasaw , and Choctaw nations were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to newly designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River after the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The Cherokee removal in 1838 was the last forced removal east of the Mississippi and was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia , in 1828, resulting in

5338-514: The Creek reservation and become part of the Creek nation, who considered them deserters ; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other Indian nations. Those among the nation who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect

5495-558: The Dade Massacre . As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the War Department for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call . Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured

5652-512: The Georgia Gold Rush . The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their newly designated Indian reserve. Thousands died from disease before reaching their destinations or shortly after. A variety of scholars have classified the Trail of Tears as an example of the genocide of Native Americans ; others categorize it as ethnic cleansing . In 1830,

5809-541: The Huntsville and Decatur area before reaching the Muscle Shoals area, and eventually forms a small part of the state's border with Mississippi , before returning to Tennessee. The river misses Georgia by about 250 feet (76 m). The Tennessee River's route northerly through Tennessee defines the boundary between two of Tennessee's Grand Divisions : Middle and West Tennessee . The Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway ,

5966-532: The Jackson Purchase from the rest of the state. It flows into the Ohio River at Paducah, Kentucky . The river valley was once home to several Native American tribes. At Painted Bluff , in northeast Alabama, painted glyphs dating to ca. 1400 A.D. have been discovered among cliffs overlooking the river. The first major battles of the American Civil War occurred along the river in 1862. The commander in

6123-664: The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma . The U.S. acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams–Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821. In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a meeting at Payne's Landing on the Ocklawaha River . The Treaty of Payne's Landing called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on

6280-602: The Mississippi River , but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people. There were significant changes in gender relations within the Cherokee Nation during the implementation of the Indian Removal Act during the 1830s. Cherokee historically operated on a matrilineal kinship system , where children belonged to the clan of their mother and their only relatives were those who could be traced through her. In addition to being matrilineal, Cherokees were also matrilocal. According to

6437-788: The National Register of Historic Places . As conflicting views came to a head, the city and county governments, in partnership with the Lyndhurst Foundation, created the Moccasin Bend Task Force in 1982. The Moccasin Bend Task Force teamed up with the Chattanooga Regional Anthropological Association. These two groups both represented unique views, centered on a conflict between historical conservation versus preservation. They each recognized

Moccasin Bend - Misplaced Pages Continue

6594-692: The Tennessee Bar Journal , a publication of the Tennessee Bar Association. In 2008, as a result of a serious drought and resulting water shortage, the Georgia General Assembly passed a resolution directing the governor to pursue its claim in the United States Supreme Court . According to a story aired on WTVC-TV in Chattanooga on March 14, 2008, a local attorney familiar with case law on border disputes, said

6751-586: The Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South. Friendly Creek leaders, like Shelocta and Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they keep the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did not "cut ( Tecumseh 's) throat" when they had the chance, so they must now cede Creek lands. Jackson also ignored Article 9 of

6908-415: The Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations. Jackson opened this first peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks. That done, he turned to the Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel. For their crime, he said, the entire Creek Nation must pay. He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the United States in prosecuting

7065-412: The Treaty of New Echota , on December 29, 1835, which granted the Cherokee two years to move to Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma). The Chickasaws and Choctaws had readily accepted and signed treaties with the U.S. government, while the Creeks did so under coercion. The negotiation of the Treaty of New Echota was largely encouraged by Jackson, and it was signed by a minority Cherokee political faction,

7222-481: The Worcester decision. At the time, members of individual Indian nations were not considered United States citizens . While citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation, individual U.S. states did not recognize the Indian nations' land claims, only individual title under State law, and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens, who often had limited standing in court; and Indian removal

7379-472: The "Hostilities of the Seminoles", assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole's resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses the Indians of not staying true to their word—the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act. After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh and Chief Shelocta signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. The 1814 signing of

7536-448: The American Woman's Educational Association Catherine Beecher and politician Davy Crockett . Historian Francis Paul Prucha , on the other hand, writes that these assessments were put forward by Jackson's political opponents and that Jackson had benevolent intentions. According to him, Jackson's critics have been too harsh, if not wrong. He states that Jackson never developed a doctrinaire anti-Indian attitude and that his dominant goal

7693-466: The Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia , in 1829, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush , the second gold rush in U.S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure mounted to fulfill the Compact of 1802 in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian land claims in the state of Georgia. When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830,

7850-420: The Cherokee in 1838. Some managed to evade the removals, however, and remained in their ancestral homelands; some Choctaw still reside in Mississippi, Creek in Alabama and Florida, Cherokee in North Carolina , and Seminole in Florida. A small group of Seminole, fewer than 500, evaded forced removal; the modern Seminole Nation of Florida is descended from these individuals. A number of non-Indians who lived with

8007-455: The Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court. In the years after the Indian Removal Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia. Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court, the most influential being Worcester v. Georgia (1832). Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in

SECTION 50

#1732855714702

8164-436: The Cherokees to sign a removal treaty. The final treaty, passed in Congress by a single vote, and signed by President Andrew Jackson , was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren . Van Buren allowed Georgia , Tennessee , North Carolina , and Alabama an armed force of 7,000 militiamen, army regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13,000 Cherokees to Cleveland, Tennessee . After

8321-427: The Chickamauga National Military Park. The bill was finally passed in 2003. In 2004, the Archeological District was officially established after the state and local government donated 672 acres of public land to the federal government (the boundaries of the park excluded already existing facilities: Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute, Moccasin Bend Golf Course, the WDEF radio tower, the Hamilton County firing range, and

8478-419: The Choctaws and the Creeks. Once in Indian Territory , the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation. By 1838, about 2,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General Winfield Scott received a final order from President Martin Van Buren to relocate the remaining Cherokees. Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died in

8635-445: The City of Chattanooga and is managed by HMS Golf. It is an approximately 160 acre area of land, south of the Moccasin Bend Wastewater Treatment Facility and north of the Blue Blazes Trail . The National Park Service maintains a shoreline easement along the western boundary of the golf course . The creation of the course altered some of the landscape, and erosion is evident in a few areas. Moccasin Bend Golf Course contains an area that

8792-408: The Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory , there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta

8949-430: The Everglades after the Seminole Wars. As a result of the Seminole Wars, the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to be the only federally recognized Indian nation which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States. In general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance as unwarranted. An article published by the Virginia Enquirer on January 26, 1836, called

9106-427: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 it continued into 1835 and after as in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time. 3,500 of those 15,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled. The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase land from

9263-464: The Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites." In this way, Sturgis has argued that Jackson demarcated the Indian population as an "obstacle" to national success. Sturgis writes that Jackson's removal policies were met with pushback from respectable social figures and that "many leaders of Jacksonian reform movements were particularly disturbed by U.S policy toward American Indians". Among these opponents were women's advocate and founder of

9420-446: The Late Woodland period. Because of the mounds' proximity to the mental health facility, access is limited. As indicated by the presence of Brown's Ferry Federal Road, John Brown, who operated Brown's Ferry , the site of a historic Civil War Battle, Moccasin Bend was the site of his homestead. While this contributes to the historical significance of Moccasin Bend, few remnants remain of John Brown's inhabitance on Moccasin Bend. There are

9577-447: The Mississippi, all of them forcing land cessions, including removals". In a speech regarding Indian removal, Jackson said, It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under

SECTION 60

#1732855714702

9734-401: The Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute, a psychiatric hospital established in 1961 by the Tennessee State Legislature . Local architect Mario Bianculli, considered "Chattanooga's First Modernist," designed the majority of the institution's five buildings. According to preliminary research done by the National Park Service, three of the five buildings at the facility appear to be unused. Some of

9891-467: The NPS to be interested in the Bend. In 1960 a large chunk of the land was sold to Chattanooga and Hamilton County. This transaction meant that almost all of the land on the Bend was under public control. This was, according to a Chattanooga Times article, the end to the 25 year controversy over Moccasin Bend. In 1961, the Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute was officially opened for service after approximately three years of construction. This development

10048-417: The National Historic Landmark Boundary, and prompted National Park Partners to launch a second phase of their Forever Moccasin Bend campaign. This phase has been dubbed " Save the Bend, Again " in reference to slogans used by Friends of Moccasin Bend and other groups during previous efforts to preserve Moccasin Bend. Several former members of Friends of Moccasin Bend have also stepped forward to speak out against

10205-471: The National Park Service in its endeavors towards "preservation, protection, and interpretation of the cultural, historical, and natural resources of the Moccasin Bend National Archeological District..."The Friends of Moccasin Bend, a non-profit organization, served as the grass roots organizers, fund raisers, and overall advocates for the park. They ensured that the park was not lost in the shuffle of federal government bureaucracy, and continues to move forward as

10362-500: The National Park Service to launch a capital campaign Forever Moccasin Bend for the new visitor and interpretive center on Hamm Road. This campaign was successful, planning for the construction of the center is currently underway. In 2023, the State of Tennessee announced plans to use Cares Act funding to build a new mental health hospital on Moccasin Bend to replace the aging Moccasin Bend State Mental Health Institute. The announcement stirred public outcry against new construction within

10519-405: The National Park Service, various projects began intended to survey the landscape, investigate sites of archeological significance, stabilize at risk areas, and explore potential opportunities to develop the land as a park. The Friends of Moccasin Bend, alongside the National Park Service, sought to implement such amenities as an interpretive center. Plans for this interpretive center are currently in

10676-416: The National Park to establish a more continuous tract of land. There is currently one private residence along Moccasin Bend Road, and it is surrounded by the NPS-owned property. Also surrounded by NPS-owned property sit the WDEF radio towers. These radio towers are currently in operation. eology, 1984 Tennessee River The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River . It

10833-523: The Seminole resistance against the army. The war ended, after a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent about $ 20,000,000 on the war, ($ 631,448,276 today). Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 500 Seminoles in peace. Other scholars state that at least several hundred Seminoles remained in

10990-442: The Senate ratified the treaty in March 1836, and the Treaty of New Echota thus became the legal basis for the Trail of Tears. Only a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from state militias, forced most of the remaining Cherokees west in 1838. The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee. In November, the Cherokee were broken into groups of around 1,000 each and began

11147-434: The Supreme Court to settle the issue once and for all. The Atlantic Wire , in commenting on Georgia's actions stated: "The Great Georgia-Tennessee Border War of 2013 Is Upon Us Historians, take note: On this day, which is not a day in 1732, a boundary dispute between two Southern states took a turn for the wet. In a two-page resolution passed overwhelmingly by the state senate, Georgia declared that it, not its neighbor to

11304-537: The Tennessee River as the "River of the Cherakees." By the late 18th century, it had come to be called "Tennessee," a name derived from the Cherokee village named Tanasi . The Tennessee River is formed at the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers in present-day Knoxville, Tennessee . From Knoxville, it flows southwest through East Tennessee into Chattanooga before crossing into Alabama . It travels through

11461-429: The Tennessee River. Many companies still rely on the river as a means of transportation for their materials. In Chattanooga, for example, steel is exported on boats, as it is much more efficient than moving it on land. In addition, locks along the Tennessee River waterway provide passage between reservoirs for more than 13,000 recreational craft each year. The Chickamauga Dam , located just upstream from Chattanooga,

11618-584: The Treaty Party, led by Cherokee leader Elias Boudinot . However, the treaty was opposed by most of the Cherokee people, as it was not approved by the Cherokee National Council, and it was not signed by Principal Chief John Ross . The Cherokee National Council submitted a petition, signed by thousands of Cherokee citizens, urging Congress to void the agreement in February 1836. Despite this opposition,

11775-430: The U.S. Supreme Court generally will maintain the original borders between states and avoid stepping into border disputes, preferring the parties work out their differences. The Chattanooga Times Free Press reported on March 25, 2013, that Georgia senators approved House Resolution 4 stating that if Tennessee declines to settle with them, the dispute will be given to the state attorney general, to take Tennessee before

11932-679: The United States after the destruction of the village of Roanoke, Georgia, located along the Chattahoochee River on the boundary between Creek and American territory, in May 1836. During the so-called " Creek War of 1836 " Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. With

12089-498: The United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty. The chief of the Choctaw nation, George W. Harkins , wrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence: It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well-improved minds would not be well entertained by

12246-477: The United States, were subject to continual cession and annexation, in part due to pressure from squatters and the threat of military force in the newly declared U.S. territories —federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Indian treaty claims. As these territories became U.S. states , state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent of state jurisdiction, and to expropriate

12403-512: The University of Tennessee Volunteers football team defeated the University of Alabama Crimson Tide 52–49 at Neyland Stadium in Knoxville, Tennessee, on a game-winning field goal by Chase McGrath as time expired. In celebration of this victory, the fans stormed the field, tore down the goalposts, and threw them into the Tennessee River after an impromptu parade in which fans carried the goalposts around

12560-467: The actual border line was set on the ground approximately one mile south, thus placing the disputed portion of the river entirely in Tennessee. Georgia made several unsuccessful attempts to correct what Georgia felt was an erroneous survey line "in the 1890s, 1905, 1915, 1922, 1941, 1947 and 1971 to 'resolve' the dispute", according to C. Crews Townsend, Joseph McCoin, Robert F. Parsley, Alison Martin and Zachary H. Greene, in their May 12, 2008, article for

12717-494: The address of a Choctaw. But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free, than live under the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their formation. United States Secretary of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage

12874-475: The annulment of a ratified treaty." However, Governor George Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over." Although

13031-521: The area part of the National Park Service and concluded that it would have a positive economic impact on the city. The Friends continued to be advocates for establishing the area as part of a National Park. They reached out to state representatives and helped build support from the community. In 2001, U.S. Representative Zach Wamp proposed HR 980, which called for the creation of Moccasin Bend National Archeological District as part of

13188-564: The beginning of the Tennessee River. Through much of the 19th century, the Tennessee River was considered to start at the mouth of Clinch River (at Kingston ). An 1889 declaration by the Tennessee General Assembly designated Kingsport (on the Holston River ) as the start of the Tennessee, but the following year a federal law was enacted that finally fixed the start of the river at its current location. At various points since

13345-700: The city of Knoxville. The river has been dammed numerous times since the 1930s by Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) projects. The construction of TVA's Kentucky Dam on the Tennessee River and the Corps of Engineers' Barkley Dam on the Cumberland River led to the development of associated lakes, and the creation of an area called the Land Between the Lakes . A navigation canal located at Grand Rivers, Kentucky , links Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley . The canal allows for

13502-462: The common association of Andrew Jackson and the Trail of Tears, ideas for Removal began prior to Jackson's presidency. Ostler explains, "A singular focus on Jackson obscures the fact that he did not invent the idea of removal…Months after the passage of the Removal Act, Jackson described the legislation as the 'happy consummation' of a policy 'pursued for nearly 30 years ' ". James Fenimore Cooper

13659-405: The creation of this park, even going so far as to gain the approval of Governor Browning in 1951, the money necessary for the acquisition of land on Moccasin Bend was cut from the budget by Browning's successor, which effectively put a halt on the memorial park project. As the memorial park project died out, government officials and business leaders advocated for a plethora of other ideas. Some wanted

13816-422: The cultural importance of the land and overall opposed industrial developments. The Anthropological Association was extremely active in excavation and archeology. The Task Force was concerned with the extent of archeological work being done and eventually asked for all artifacts found at Moccasin Bend to be returned. Meanwhile, Moccasin Bend had been nominated to become designated as a National Historic Landmark. This

13973-576: The earliest family houses in the southeastern United States. Parts of the Vulcan Site are included in the Blue Blazes Trail as well as on the Moccasin Bend Golf Course. As with the other sites, the archeological site is not currently visible. The Woodland Mound Complex is located on the southern tip of Moccasin Bend and is within the confines of the Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute. These mounds are attributed to burial practices of

14130-486: The early 19th century, Georgia has disputed its northern border with Tennessee. In 1796, when Tennessee was admitted to the Union, the border was originally defined by United States Congress as located on the 35th parallel, thereby ensuring that at least a portion of the river would be located within Georgia. As a result of an erroneously conducted survey in 1818 (ratified by the Tennessee legislature, but not Georgia), however,

14287-782: The end of the Pleistocene Era. During the Woodland Period (700 BC – 1000 AD,) there were major changes evolving with the needs of the Indian people. The use of bow and arrows became the primary way of hunting and pottery became widely popular throughout the Indian tribes. From the Woodland Period, artifacts have been found on Moccasin Bend. During the Mississippian Period (AD 1000–1630), the American Indians resided on Moccasin Bend in large villages enclosed by corn fields and other agricultural necessities. The Mississippian Period

14444-471: The ensuing trek to Oklahoma. In the Cherokee language , the event is called nu na da ul tsun yi ("the place where they cried") or nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i (the trail where they cried). The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota , an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which exchanged Indian land in the East for lands west of

14601-600: The events leading to removal, a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments, many of them organized by speculators operating out of Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama, were perpetrated after the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta. A portion of the beleaguered Creeks, many desperately poor and feeling abused and oppressed by their American neighbors, struck back by carrying out occasional raids on area farms and committing other isolated acts of violence. Escalating tensions erupted into open war with

14758-577: The existing lands. The law also gave the president power to pay for transportation costs to the West, should the nations willingly choose to relocate. The law did not, however, allow the president to force Indian nations to move west without a mutually agreed-upon treaty. Referring to the Indian Removal Act, Martin Van Buren, Jackson's vice president and successor, is quoted as saying "There was no measure, in

14915-461: The ice to get water for ourselves and animals. It snows here every two or three days at the fartherest. We are now camped in Mississippi [River] swamp 4 miles (6 km) from the river, and there is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating down the river every day. We have only traveled 65 miles (105 km) on the last month, including the time spent at this place, which has been about three weeks. It

15072-471: The idea that they had found an undeveloped 'wilderness" when they arrived" in an attempt to appeal to white American values by participating in the settler colonial process themselves. Other Indian nations, such as the Quapaws and Osages had moved to Indian Territory before the "Five Tribes" and saw them as intruders. Before 1838, the fixed boundaries of these autonomous Indian nations , comprising large areas of

15229-464: The initial removal efforts. The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died". The Choctaws in Mississippi were later reformed as

15386-495: The initial roundup, the U.S. military oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Most of the deaths during the journey were caused by disease, malnutrition, and exposure during an unusually cold winter. In the winter of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000-mile (1,600 km) march with scant clothing and most on foot without shoes or moccasins. The march began in Red Clay, Tennessee ,

15543-408: The journey west. They endured heavy rains, snow, and freezing temperatures. When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land east of the Mississippi for land in modern Oklahoma and a $ 5 million payment from the federal government. Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal, and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of

15700-439: The land and re-established agricultural practices. Most of the land continued to be used for agriculture, but it was divided and sold to various farmers and individuals. In 1898, some individuals promoted a plan of creating a canal that ran across the Bend. The plan was eventually dropped because of its extremely high cost. In the early part of the 20th century, Moccasin Bend was investigated by numerous archeologists. They discovered

15857-403: The land therein. These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the South, with the rapid development of cotton cultivation in the uplands after the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney . Many people of the southeastern Indian nations had become economically integrated into the economy of the region. This included the plantation economy and

16014-490: The land to be used for a mental health facility. Others wanted the land to be used for industrial development. The Chattanooga Times supported the creation of both a mental health facility and a park. In 1957, as pressures to industrialize mounted, the Moccasin Bend Association was formed to promote preservation of the land. However, it appeared that most people at the time supported a broader, multiple use plan for

16171-490: The land. With this information in mind, Charles Dunn, superintendent of the Chickamauga Chattanooga National Military Park, presented his opinion that the federal government should seek to acquire the land and make it a National Park. However, the National Park Service believed that recent developments on the land detracted from the scenic and recreational value of the land that had originally led

16328-497: The landscape around the perimeter of the facility is part of a federal government easement that runs the entire length of the riverbank upon which Moccasin Mental Health Institute is located. There are a number of American Indian mounds on part of the hospital property. However, because of hospital security measures, there is little to no public access to these sites. The golf course is currently owned by Hamilton County and

16485-526: The limits of the States they must be subject to their laws. In return for their obedience as individuals they will without doubt be protected in the enjoyment of those possessions which they have improved by their industry". The prioritization of American Indian removal and his violent past created a sense of restlessness among U.S. territories. During his presidency, "the United States made eighty-six treaties with twenty-six American Indian nations between New York and

16642-470: The location of the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation. Because of the diseases, the Indians were not allowed to go into any towns or villages along the way; many times this meant traveling much farther to go around them. After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky, they arrived at the Ohio River across from Golconda in southern Illinois about the 3rd of December 1838. Here the starving Indians were charged

16799-660: The matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court . In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the Marshall court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government—not state governments—had authority in Indian affairs. Worcester v Georgia

16956-541: The matter. In 1965 Moccasin Bend Golf Course was created. At the same time, the local government prepared to purchase some of the last remaining land that was available for industrial development. Various ideas were proposed as to how the land should be used, but development was frequently obstructed by continual discoveries of American Indian remains. These frequent discoveries led some people, particularly archeologists, to believe that Moccasin Bend needed to be placed on

17113-470: The mouth of the Tennessee River upstream. Trail of Tears The Trail of Tears was the forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of the " Five Civilized Tribes " between 1830 and 1850, and the additional thousands of Native Americans and their enslaved African Americans within that were ethnically cleansed by the United States government . As part of Indian removal , members of

17270-513: The nations, including over 4,000 slaves and others of African descent such as spouses or Freedmen , also accompanied the Indians on the trek westward. By 1837, 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km ) for white settlement. When the "Five Tribes" arrived in Indian Territory, "they followed their physical appropriation of Plains Indians' land with an erasure of their predecessor's history", and "perpetuated

17427-499: The nativized settler, his adopted son ... Cooper had much to do with creating the US origin myth to which generations of historians have dedicated themselves, fortifying what historian Francis Jennings has described as "exclusion from the process of formation of American society and culture". Although Jackson was not the sole, or original, architect of Removal policy, his contributions were influential in its trajectory. Jackson's support for

17584-626: The naturalist William Bartram, "Marriage gives no right to the husband over the property of his wife; and when they part, she keeps the children and property belonging to them." In this way, the typical Cherokee family was structured in a way where the wife held possession to the property, house, and children. However, during the 1820s and 1830s, "Cherokees [began adopting] the Anglo-American concept of power—a political system dominated by wealthy, highly acculturated men and supported by an ideology that made women … subordinate". The Treaty of New Echota

17741-508: The new construction. Native Americans used this land as a place for a home as long as 12,000 years ago. During the Paleo-Indian Period (10500–8000 BC), Moccasin Bend served as a home for Paleo-Indians. These people evidently had a highly mobile hunting and gathering way of life. The artifact markers for this period include a variety of fluted, semi-fluted, and un-fluted lanceolate projectile points. The Paleo-Indian period corresponds to

17898-456: The new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833, that the new land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have

18055-465: The north, controls part of the Tennessee River at Nickajack . Georgia doesn't want Nickajack. It wants that water.". The Tennessee River is an important part of the Great Loop , the recreational circumnavigation of Eastern North America by water. The main channel is accessible to recreational watercraft at over 200 public access points along the river's course. The Tennessee River has historically been

18212-531: The possession of slaves, who were also forcibly relocated during the removal. Prior to Jackson's presidency, removal policy was already in place and justified by the myth of the " Vanishing Indian ". Historian Jeffrey Ostler explains that "Scholars have exposed how the discourse of the vanishing Indian was an ideology that made declining Indigenous American populations seem to be an inevitable consequence of natural processes and so allowed Americans to evade moral responsibility for their destructive choices". Despite

18369-574: The power to decide for all the Indian nations and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded, however, and went west in 1834. On December 28, 1835, a group of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.S. Army company marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort King in Ocala , killing all but three of the 110 army troops. This came to be known as

18526-494: The previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five-year debate. They paid the Choctaws $ 530,000 (equal to $ 14,700,000 today) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land. The first group of Chickasaws moved in 1837 and was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis on July 4, 1837, with all of their assets—belongings, livestock, and slaves. Once across the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established by

18683-421: The proposed plans, there are currently some limited recreational opportunities and amenities. While areas of the park continue to be developed, there are a few key areas that are currently accessible to the public and allow a glimpse into the unique landscape of Moccasin Bend. The National Archeological District includes a 10.5 acre meadow that has been designated the future site of an interpretive center. The area

18840-462: The protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community. The removals, conducted under both Presidents Jackson and Van Buren , followed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which provided the president with powers to exchange land with Indian nations and provide infrastructure improvements on

18997-469: The remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined. The treaty provided that

19154-460: The removal of the Indians began at least a decade before his presidency. Indian removal was Jackson's top legislative priority upon taking office. After being elected president, he wrote in his first address to Congress: "The emigration should be voluntary, for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers and seek a home in a distant land. But they should be distinctly informed that if they remain within

19311-536: The removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in November 1831 and ending in 1833. The first groups met at Memphis and Vicksburg, where a harsh winter battered the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially, the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott ,

19468-483: The river also was bordered by numerous Cherokee towns. Its current name is derived from the Cherokee town, Tanasi , which was located on the Tennessee side of the Appalachian Mountains. The river appears on French maps from the late 17th century with the names "Caquinampo" or "Kasqui." Maps from the early 18th century call it "Cussate," " Hogohegee ," "Callamaco," and "Acanseapi." A 1755 British map showed

19625-697: The role of women changed dramatically within Cherokee Nation following colonial encroachment. For instance, Cherokee women played a significant role in the negotiation of land transactions as late as 1785, where they spoke at a treaty conference held at Hopewell, South Carolina to clarify and extend land cessions stemming from Cherokee support of the British in the American Revolution. The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure, and illegal settlements resulted. Long-simmering tensions between Georgia and

19782-583: The southeastern United States from their traditional homelands. The establishment of the Indian Territory and the extinguishing of Indian land claims east of the Mississippi by the Indian Removal Act anticipated the U.S. Indian reservation system, which was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century. The statutory argument for Indian sovereignty persisted until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), that

19939-551: The state of Georgia without a license. Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling, arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the United States federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands. The Court ruled in Worcester's favor, declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal law and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by

20096-457: The state of Georgia. Chief Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, is a distinct community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia can have no force. The whole intercourse between the United States and this Nation, is, by our constitution and laws, vested in the government of the United States." The Court did not ask federal marshals to carry out the decision. Worcester thus imposed no obligations on Jackson; there

20253-428: The state of Georgia. He was already embroiled in a constitutional crisis with South Carolina (i.e. the nullification crisis ) and favored Cherokee relocation over civil war. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on

20410-597: The time, John Cook, dismissed their claims, arguing that the Bend "has lost its historical significance and part of its natural beauty," which decreased its value as an asset for the National Park. His belief was that the land on Moccasin Bend was the responsibility of local individuals and governments. As the chances of the National Park Services becoming involved in the area diminished, numerous development projects came to light. One particularly destructive project

20567-406: The treaty. By the end of the decade in 1840, tens of thousands of Cherokee and other Indian nations had been removed from their land east of the Mississippi River. The Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were also relocated under the Indian Removal Act of 1830. One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as "A Trail of Tears and Deaths", a devastating event that removed most of the Indian population of

20724-403: The twentieth century continue to operate. Manufacturers Road and Hamm Road, the central avenues leading to Moccasin Bend, are full of industry. A common complaint about Moccasin Bend as a recreation area is that its access is limited by the uninviting, polluted roadways that must be traveled to reach the park. Aside from the plethora of industries in the area, the land on Moccasin Bend is used for

20881-570: The valuable asset that it is to Chattanooga. After the Moccasin Bend National Archeological District officially became part of the NPS General Management Plan, Friends of Moccasin Bend merged with the already existing Friends of the Park group that had formed in 1986 for the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, and in 2018 became National Park Partners: Chickamauga - Chattanooga - Moccasin Bend. National Park Partners worked with

21038-463: The war, which by his calculation came to 23,000,000 acres (93,000 km ) of land. Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense . Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs , which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh

21195-530: The western theater, General Henry Halleck , considered the Tennessee River to be more significant than the Mississippi. The Tennessee River begins at mile post 652, where the French Broad River meets the Holston River, but historically there were several different definitions of its starting point. In the late 18th century, the mouth of the Little Tennessee River (at Lenoir City ) was considered to be

21352-593: The whole course of [Jackson's] administration, of which he was more exclusively the author than this." According to historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, Jackson's intentions were outwardly violent. Dunbar-Ortiz claims that Jackson believed in "bleeding enemies to give them their senses" on his quest to "serve the goal of U.S. expansion". According to her, American Indians presented an obstacle to the fulfillment of Manifest Destiny, in his mind. Throughout his military career, according to historian Amy H. Sturgis , "Jackson earned and emphasized his reputation as an 'Indian fighter',

21509-492: The works. Just as the creation of the park was relatively slow going, so has been the process of developing the Bend's park aspects. The fragmented nature of the park and its history of industrial and commercial use has made the transition into a thriving area of cultural and historical significance a challenge. In order to move forward with some of the proposed plans for development, there are areas of land that need to be acquired from their current landowners. This has proved to be

21666-461: Was a step backward for those who wished to preserve the land for its recreation uses. To combat this, in that same year the Moccasin Bend Association revived efforts to involve the National Park Service in the management of the land. As advocates for the creation of a park who opposed industrialization and development on the land sought out the NPS's assistance with increased urgency, the park superintendent at

21823-584: Was able to gain Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the government to extinguish any Indian title to land claims in the Southeast. In 1831, the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed, and their removal served as the model for all future relocations. After two wars , many Seminoles were removed in 1832. The Creek removal followed in 1834, the Chickasaw in 1837, and lastly

21980-462: Was also a key component of the maintenance of the "vanishing Indian" myth. This vanishing narrative can be seen as existing prior to the Trail of Tears through Cooper's novel The Last of the Mohicans . Scholar and author Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz shows that: Cooper has the last of the 'noble' and 'pure' Natives die off as nature would have it, with the 'last Mohican' handing the continent over to Hawkeye,

22137-855: Was also the time of interaction with the Spanish to the area, starting with Hernando de Soto 's march through the area in 1540. Moccasin Bend was very important area of land at this time. Early interactions between American-Indians of the Mississippian Period and European explorers such as Hernando de Soto were especially destructive for American-Indian populations. The establishment of French and British trading networks in these early settlements introduced firearms to Indians, which altered their economy. Indian communities began to emphasize hunting for hides as an economic resource, as hides were of great value to French and British settlers. During this time, Cherokee Indians only lightly used Moccasin Bend. Another historical site across Moccasin Bend, possibly constructed in 1805,

22294-429: Was approved in 1986. Three years later, the blue blazes trail was established. Once the land was officially designated as having historic and cultural significance, involved parties began the task of outlining how the land should be monitored, protected, and preserved. In 1994, the Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park organization was established, marking a new era in efforts to protect and restore Moccasin Bend. After

22451-468: Was assassinated on April 30, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa. The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola , protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually, the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826) . The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again—achieve

22608-482: Was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction, often by state militias. As a result, individual Indians who could prove U.S. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas. The Choctaw nation resided in large portions of what are now the U.S. states of Alabama , Mississippi , and Louisiana . After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11 million acres (45,000 km ). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded

22765-405: Was established in the Tennessee Valley beginning in 1887, producing buttons from the abundant mussel shells. Button production ceased after World War II when plastics replaced mother-of-pearl as a button material. Mussel populations have declined drastically due to dam construction, water pollution, and invasive species . Tributaries and sub-tributaries are listed hierarchically in order from

22922-418: Was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokee and Choctaw. American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands, while others wanted more land made available to the settlers. Although the effort was vehemently opposed by some, including U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee , President Andrew Jackson

23079-461: Was instrumental in leading to the creation of the park and continues to be actively involved in the park's management and policies. At the time of its creation, the plans for Moccasin Bend's future were still very much up for debate. After the idea had been shut down for decades, the Friends of Moccasin Bend revitalized the idea of adding Moccasin Bend to the Chickamauga Chattanooga National Military Park. They conducted an economic impact report of making

23236-423: Was largely signed by men. While women were present at the rump council negotiating the treaty, they did not have a seat at the table to participate in the proceedings. Historian Theda Perdue explains that "Cherokee women met in their own councils to discuss their own opinions" despite not being able to participate. The inability for women to join in on the negotiation and signing of the Treaty of New Echota shows how

23393-505: Was nothing for him to enforce, although Jackson's' political enemies conspired to find evidence, to be used in the forthcoming political election , to claim that he would refuse to enforce the Worcester decision. He feared that enforcement would lead to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, which would compound the ongoing crisis in South Carolina and lead to a broader civil war. Instead, he vigorously negotiated

23550-539: Was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples. Nearly 17,000 Choctaws made the move to what would be called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma . About 2,500–6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000–6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after

23707-591: Was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. The Creeks were never given a fair chance to comply with the terms of the treaty, however. Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans continued unabated with federal and state authorities unable or unwilling to do much to halt it. Further, as recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough chronicle of

23864-705: Was the USA Federal Road , used to connect Georgia with Tennessee to the north by transiting through the Cherokee Nation. In 1838, the Cherokee Indians were forced out of their national area by the U.S. Government. Moccasin Bend was not part of the Cherokee Nation in 1838 but was crossed by two departing parties on the Trail of Tears . Moccasin Bend also played a major role in the Civil War . The Union forces took control of west and middle Tennessee, leaving one important place they had not yet conquered. They took that in

24021-644: Was the first of many attempts to create a park on the land. However, the Great Depression and World War II soon directed attention elsewhere and the push for the creation of the park went on a temporary hiatus. In 1944, the Chattanooga Chamber of Commerce established the Moccasin Bend Memorial Park Association for the purpose of developing a park that would be dedicated to military service men and women. Despite widespread support for

24178-444: Was the large scale dredging that took place at the future site of Chattanooga State Technical College . During this project, archaeologists found a number of important artifacts that indicated the historic presence of Indian civilization on the land for thousands of years. Prominent supporters of the land attempted to use this as an opportunity to legitimize the land's national importance, but to no avail. The NPS remained uninterested in

24335-483: Was to preserve the security and well-being of the United States and its Indian and white inhabitants. Corroborating Prucha's interpretation, historian Robert V. Remini argues that Jackson never intended the "monstrous result" of his policy. Remini argues further that had Jackson not orchestrated the removal of the " Five Civilized Tribes " from their ancestral homelands, they would have been totally wiped out. Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal, and negotiated

24492-416: Was under city/county management. The trail is low lying and contains numerous wetlands, with numerous muddy patches throughout. Although efforts are being made to make walking through the muddy patches possible. Currently there are no interpretive signs along this trail, but there are numerous areas of historical significance nearby, including the site where multiple Paleo-era projectile points were found. There

24649-401: Was used during the Trail of Tears . Additionally, this road was used to transport Union supplies during the Civil War in 1863. This trail is marked by interpretive signs explaining some of the historical and cultural significance of the route. This trail is also open to the public and can be accessed through a parking lot located on Moccasin Bend Road. Moccasin Bend, as per its designation as

#701298