A mindset refers to an established set of attitudes of a person or group concerning culture, values, philosophy, frame of reference, outlook, or disposition. It may also arise from a person's worldview or beliefs about the meaning of life .
114-402: Some scholars claim that people can have multiple types of mindsets. Some of these types include a growth mindset, fixed mindset, poverty mindset, abundance mindset, and positive mindset among others that make up a person's overall mindset. More broadly, scholars have found that mindset is associated with a range of functional effects in different areas of people's lives. This includes influencing
228-582: A behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of actor, operation, interactions, and their properties. This can be represented as a behavior vector . Although disagreement exists as to how to precisely define behavior in a biological context, one common interpretation based on a meta-analysis of scientific literature states that "behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal or external stimuli". A broader definition of behavior, applicable to plants and other organisms,
342-464: A (possibly asymmetric) zero-sum game by adding a dummy player (often called "the board") whose losses compensate the players' net winnings. Simultaneous games are games where both players move simultaneously, or instead the later players are unaware of the earlier players' actions (making them effectively simultaneous). Sequential games (or dynamic games) are games where players do not make decisions simultaneously, and player's earlier actions affect
456-409: A Pepsi-drinker is less likely to purchase Coca-Cola, even if it is cheaper and more convenient. This is due to the preference of the consumer, and no matter how hard the opposing company tries they will not be able to force the customer to change their mind. Product placement in the modern era has little influence on consumer behavior, due to the availability of goods online. If a customer can purchase
570-493: A behavior actually occurs, antecedents focus on the stimuli that influence the behavior that is about to happen. After the behavior occurs, consequences fall into place. Consequences consist of rewards or punishments. Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with
684-439: A collection of characteristics relevant to the player such as their preferences and details about them. There must be a state for every set of features that some player believes may exist. For example, where Player 1 is unsure whether Player 2 would rather date her or get away from her, while Player 2 understands Player 1's preferences as before. To be specific, supposing that Player 1 believes that Player 2 wants to date her under
798-467: A consumer is hungry, then this physical feeling of hunger will influence them so that they go and purchase a sandwich to satisfy the hunger. Lars Perner presents a model that outlines the decision-making process involved in consumer behaviour. The process initiates with the identification of a problem, wherein the consumer acknowledges an unsatisfied need or desire. Subsequently, the consumer proceeds to seek information, whereas for low-involvement products,
912-523: A course of action. This mindset is connected to the idea of goal setting. After someone narrows down their options and makes a commitment to follow a particular path, they will have an implemental mindset. People with an implemental mindset are less open to alternative courses of action because they have already decided what they are going to do and now focus more energy on goal striving, rather than goal setting. The deliberative mindset has been recognized as important for coming to conclusions in order to make
1026-412: A discounted differential game over an infinite time interval. Evolutionary game theory studies players who adjust their strategies over time according to rules that are not necessarily rational or farsighted. In general, the evolution of strategies over time according to such rules is modeled as a Markov chain with a state variable such as the current strategy profile or how the game has been played in
1140-459: A false growth mindset. Elements of personality (such as sensitivity to mistakes and setbacks) may predispose toward a particular mindset, which can be developed and reshaped through interactions. In a number of studies, Dweck and her colleagues noted that alterations in mindset could be achieved through "praising the process through which success was achieved", "having [college aged students] read compelling scientific articles that support one view or
1254-403: A focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviorism is a term that also describes the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or trained behavioral responses in a laboratory context, without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity. Consumer behavior involves
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#17328524593201368-495: A game many times within their lifetime and, consciously or unconsciously, occasionally adjust their strategies. Individual decision problems with stochastic outcomes are sometimes considered "one-player games". They may be modeled using similar tools within the related disciplines of decision theory , operations research , and areas of artificial intelligence , particularly AI planning (with uncertainty) and multi-agent system . Although these fields may have different motivators,
1482-442: A good Gestell . Erik H. Erikson's analysis of group-identities and what he calls a "life-plan" is relevant to a collective mindset. Erikson cites Native Americans who were meant to undergo a reeducation process to instill a modern "life-plan" which advocated housing and wealth; the natives' collective historic identity as buffalo hunters was oriented around such fundamentally different motivations that communication about life plans
1596-412: A good from the comfort of their home instead of purchasing in-store, then the placement of products is not going to influence their purchase decision. In management, behaviors are associated with desired or undesired focuses. Managers generally note what the desired outcome is, but behavioral patterns can take over. These patterns are the reference to how often the desired behavior actually occurs. Before
1710-470: A growth mindset believe that "intelligence can be developed", and their abilities can be increased by learning. They tend to embrace challenges, persevere in the face of adversity, accept and learn from failure, focus on process rather than outcome, and see abilities as skills which are developed through effort. Feedback and failure are seen as opportunities to increase ability, signaling the "need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master
1824-497: A growth mindset had stronger learning goals than the fixed mindset students." These students "had much more positive attitudes toward effort, agreeing that 'when something is hard, it just makes me want to work more on it, not less ' ". Students with a fixed mindset were more likely to say that "if you're not good at a subject, working hard won't make you good at it” and “when I work hard at something, it makes me feel like I'm not very smart". Dweck's research on growth and fixed mindsets
1938-439: A growth mindset in everything all the time." along with the acknowledgement of the reality of the false growth mindset, and the truer growth mindset. One of Dweck's concerns being that educators were giving praise based on effort alone, when the results gained did not she believe merit praise. Researchers noted adults within a study "who agree with growth mindset, but do not behave as though they believe ability can change" as holding
2052-442: A growth mindset, by allowing students to see that their behavior can be changed with effort. Criticism has been directed at "growth mindset" and related research, however. Moreau et al. (2019) suggest "that overemphasizing the malleability of abilities and other traits can have negative consequences for individuals, science, and society." Follow up research after the release of her book has led Dweck to be quoted as saying "Nobody has
2166-426: A high-level approach as it describes only the structure and payoffs of coalitions, whereas non-cooperative game theory also looks at how strategic interaction will affect the distribution of payoffs. As non-cooperative game theory is more general, cooperative games can be analyzed through the approach of non-cooperative game theory (the converse does not hold) provided that sufficient assumptions are made to encompass all
2280-552: A letter attributed to Charles Waldegrave, an active Jacobite and uncle to British diplomat James Waldegrave , analyzed a game called " le her ". Waldegrave provided a minimax mixed strategy solution to a two-person version of the card game, and the problem is now known as the Waldegrave problem . In 1838, Antoine Augustin Cournot provided a model of competition in oligopolies . Though he did not refer to it as such, he presented
2394-495: A marketing tool and stand for Price, Promotion, Product, and Placement. Due to the significant impact of business-to-consumer marketing on consumer behavior, the four elements of the marketing mix, known as the 4 P's (product, price, place, and promotion), exert a notable influence on consumer behavior. The price of a good or service is largely determined by the market, as businesses will set their prices to be similar to that of other businesses so as to remain competitive whilst making
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#17328524593202508-520: A participant's gains or losses are exactly balanced by the losses and gains of the other participant. In the 1950s, it was extended to the study of non zero-sum games, and was eventually applied to a wide range of behavioral relations . It is now an umbrella term for the science of rational decision making in humans, animals, and computers. Modern game theory began with the idea of mixed-strategy equilibria in two-person zero-sum games and its proof by John von Neumann . Von Neumann's original proof used
2622-863: A particular practice. Hitt cites the five dimensions of an entrepreneurial mindset as "autonomy, innovativeness, risk taking, proactiveness, and competitive aggressiveness". The study of mindsets includes definition, measurement, and categorization. Scholars in the same discipline differ. Sagiv and Schwarts defined cultural values to explain the nature, functions, and variables which characterize mindset agency. They posited three bipolar dimensions of culture, based on values: cognitive (embedded or autonomous), figurative (mastery or harmony), and operative (hierarchical or egalitarian). The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measures psychological functions which, paired with social attitudes, combine to generate personality types that may be evaluated by exploring individual preferences. Maruyama's mindscape theory measures individuals on
2736-487: A person's beliefs and actions regarding their health and well-being . Health behaviors are direct factors in maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Health behaviors are influenced by the social, cultural, and physical environments in which we live. They are shaped by individual choices and external constraints. Positive behaviors help promote health and prevent disease, while the opposite is true for risk behaviors. Health behaviors are early indicators of population health. Because of
2850-695: A person's capacity for perception by functioning like a filter, a frame of reference, a meaning-making system, and a pattern of perception. Mindset is described as shaping a person's capacity for development by being associated with passive or conditional learning, incremental or horizontal learning, and transformative or vertical learning. Mindset is also believed to influence a person's behavior, having deliberative or implemental action phases, as well as being associated with technical or adaptive approaches to leadership. A mindset could create an incentive to adopt (or accept) previous behaviors , choices, or tools, sometimes known as cognitive inertia or groupthink . When
2964-416: A player benefits only at the equal expense of others). Poker exemplifies a zero-sum game (ignoring the possibility of the house's cut), because one wins exactly the amount one's opponents lose. Other zero-sum games include matching pennies and most classical board games including Go and chess . Many games studied by game theorists (including the famed prisoner's dilemma) are non-zero-sum games, because
3078-422: A prevailing mindset is limiting or inappropriate, it may be difficult to counteract the grip of mindset on analysis and decision-making . In cognitive psychology , a mindset is the cognitive process activated in a task. In addition to the field of cognitive psychology , the study of mindset is evident in the social sciences and other fields (such as positive psychology ). Characteristic of this area of study
3192-692: A prevention mindset are characterized as being cautious and careful, avoiding risks and any course of action that could potentially cause failure in reaching a goal. In 2019 a larger randomized controlled trial by the Education Endowment Foundation for growth mindset training showed no significant increase in numeracy or literacy. A 2024 study showed that growth mindset scales by Carol Dweck have psychometric comparability, however this study showed no connection between growth mindset and goal achievement. Behavior Behavior ( American English ) or behaviour ( British English )
3306-466: A probability of 1/2 and get away from her under a probability of 1/2 (this evaluation comes from Player 1's experience probably: she faces players who want to date her half of the time in such a case and players who want to avoid her half of the time). Due to the probability involved, the analysis of this situation requires to understand the player's preference for the draw, even though people are only interested in pure strategic equilibrium. Games in which
3420-410: A profit. When market prices for a product are high, it will cause consumers to purchase less and use purchased goods for longer periods of time, meaning they are purchasing the product less often. Alternatively, when market prices for a product are low, consumers are more likely to purchase more of the product, and more often. The way that promotion influences consumer behavior has changed over time. In
3534-530: A promotion mindset seek to make good things happen, and situations that encourage a promotion mindset are those in which there is a promise of gain. Those with a dispositional prevention mindset believe that they need to keep bad things from happening, and situations conducive to the prevention mindset are those in which the idea of duty is emphasized. Those with a promotion mindset are characterized as being eager and quick to act. They take initiative and move to cause improvements towards their ideal state. People with
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3648-438: A scale of characteristics and places them into one of four personality categories. According to Carol Dweck , individuals can be placed on a continuum according to their views about where ability originates, from a fixed to a growth mindset. An individual's mindset affects the "motivation to practice and learn". People with a fixed mindset believe that "intelligence is static", and little can be done to improve ability. Feedback
3762-436: A scarcity mindset induces functional fixedness, thereby reducing creativity." According to Chris Argyris , organizations have two dominant mindsets: productive and defensive. The productive mindset is hinged in logic, focused on knowledge and its certifiable results – a decision-making mindset which is transparent and auditable. The defensive mindset is closed, self-protective and self-deceptive. It does not see
3876-557: A significant role in determining their expectations, teaching practices, and how students perceive their own mindset." A study by Patrick and Joshi explored how teachers explain growth and fixed mindsets, with two major findings in 150 semi-structured interviews. First, they found that teachers' prior beliefs about learning and students influenced how they engaged with their mindsets. Second, they found that many teachers oversimplified growth and fixed mindsets as positive and negative traits. A study conducted by Fiona S. Seaton (2018) examined
3990-704: A solution that is the Nash equilibrium of the game in his Recherches sur les principes mathématiques de la théorie des richesses ( Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth ). In 1883, Joseph Bertrand critiqued Cournot's model as unrealistic, providing an alternative model of price competition which would later be formalized by Francis Ysidro Edgeworth . In 1913, Ernst Zermelo published Über eine Anwendung der Mengenlehre auf die Theorie des Schachspiels ( On an Application of Set Theory to
4104-416: A standard method in game theory and mathematical economics . Von Neumann's work in game theory culminated in his 1944 book Theory of Games and Economic Behavior , co-authored with Oskar Morgenstern . The second edition of this book provided an axiomatic theory of utility , which reincarnated Daniel Bernoulli's old theory of utility (of money) as an independent discipline. This foundational work contains
4218-551: A systematic study of the mindset research. A political example is the " Cold War mindset" in the U.S. and the USSR . This mindset reflects how people globally perceived the levels of security between the two nations. This mindset suggested that if one nation grew in strength and power, the other was threatened and vice versa. The main goal of the Cold War Mindset was to strengthen one's own nation's military and alliances while keeping
4332-400: A well-planned goal, but it has negative consequences for goal striving once a goal is already in place. On the other hand, the implemental mindset helps people to focus their behavior in a particular direction; this can be detrimental for someone who has not spent sufficient time with a deliberative mindset. The promotion and prevention mindsets are motivational orientations that are focused on
4446-427: A wider variety of games than the criterion proposed by von Neumann and Morgenstern. Nash proved that every finite n-player, non-zero-sum (not just two-player zero-sum) non-cooperative game has what is now known as a Nash equilibrium in mixed strategies. Game theory experienced a flurry of activity in the 1950s, during which the concepts of the core , the extensive form game , fictitious play , repeated games , and
4560-677: Is Hex . A related field of study, drawing from computational complexity theory , is game complexity , which is concerned with estimating the computational difficulty of finding optimal strategies. Research in artificial intelligence has addressed both perfect and imperfect information games that have very complex combinatorial structures (like chess, go, or backgammon) for which no provable optimal strategies have been found. The practical solutions involve computational heuristics, like alpha–beta pruning or use of artificial neural networks trained by reinforcement learning , which make games more tractable in computing practice. Much of game theory
4674-547: Is non-cooperative if players cannot form alliances or if all agreements need to be self-enforcing (e.g. through credible threats ). Cooperative games are often analyzed through the framework of cooperative game theory , which focuses on predicting which coalitions will form, the joint actions that groups take, and the resulting collective payoffs. It is different from non-cooperative game theory which focuses on predicting individual players' actions and payoffs by analyzing Nash equilibria . Cooperative game theory provides
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4788-446: Is also used to refer to a practical approach developed by Nigel Howard, whereby a situation is framed as a strategic game in which stakeholders try to realize their objectives by means of the options available to them. Subsequent developments have led to the formulation of confrontation analysis . Mean field game theory is the study of strategic decision making in very large populations of small interacting agents. This class of problems
4902-475: Is captured in the different representations discussed above. Often, normal form is used to represent simultaneous games, while extensive form is used to represent sequential ones. The transformation of extensive to normal form is one way, meaning that multiple extensive form games correspond to the same normal form. Consequently, notions of equilibrium for simultaneous games are insufficient for reasoning about sequential games; see subgame perfection . In short,
5016-413: Is concerned with finite, discrete games that have a finite number of players, moves, events, outcomes, etc. Many concepts can be extended, however. Continuous games allow players to choose a strategy from a continuous strategy set. For instance, Cournot competition is typically modeled with players' strategies being any non-negative quantities, including fractional quantities. Differential games such as
5130-477: Is considered to be partially observable stochastic game (POSG), but few realistic problems are computationally feasible in POSG representation. These are games the play of which is the development of the rules for another game, the target or subject game. Metagames seek to maximize the utility value of the rule set developed. The theory of metagames is related to mechanism design theory. The term metagame analysis
5244-561: Is its fragmentation among academic disciplines. Numerous scholars have identified mindset history as being a critical gap in contemporary literature and also in current approaches to mindset education and training. The first dedicated review of mindset history found that mindset psychology has a century-long history of explicit research and practice, with its origin phase taking place between 1908 and 1939, early inquiries occurring between 1940 and 1987, and contemporary bodies of work emerging in and beyond 1988. This review also identified some of
5358-410: Is seen as "evaluation of their underlying ability" and success is seen as a result of this ability, not any effort expended. Failure is intimidating, since it "suggests constraints or limits they would not be able to overcome". Those with a fixed mindset tend to avoid challenges, give up easily, and focus on the outcome. They believe that their abilities are fixed, and effort has little value. Those with
5472-536: Is similar to the concept of phenotypic plasticity . It describes behavior as a response to an event or environment change during the course of the lifetime of an individual, differing from other physiological or biochemical changes that occur more rapidly, and excluding changes that are a result of development ( ontogeny ). Behaviors can be either innate or learned from the environment. Behaviour can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment. Behavior provides outputs from
5586-436: Is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals , organisms , systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment. It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious , overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary . Taking
5700-592: Is the variety with which scholars define it, but they typically agree that global mindset and its development increase global effectiveness for individuals and organizations. People with an abundance mindset believe that there are enough resources for everyone, and see the glass as half-full; those with a scarcity mindset believe that there is a limited number of resources, and see the glass as half-empty. Mehta and Zhu found that an "abundance mindset makes people think beyond established functionalities to explore broadly for solutions, thereby heightening creativity. In contrast,
5814-524: Is through consumer willingness to pay, and consumer preferences. This means that even if a company were to have a long history of products in the market, consumers will still pick a cheaper product over the company in question's product if it means they will pay less for something that is very similar. This is due to consumer willingness to pay, or their willingness to part with the money they have earned. The product also influences consumer behavior through customer preferences. For example, take Pepsi vs Coca-Cola,
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#17328524593205928-399: Is useful in intervening with at-risk students, dispelling negative stereotypes in education held by teachers and students, understanding the impacts of self-theories on resilience, and understanding how praise can foster a growth mindset and positively impact student motivation. There has also been movement towards the application of Dweck's mindset research in non-academic environments, such as
6042-450: The payoffs for each outcome. (Eric Rasmusen refers to these four "essential elements" by the acronym "PAPI".) A game theorist typically uses these elements, along with a solution concept of their choosing, to deduce a set of equilibrium strategies for each player such that, when these strategies are employed, no player can profit by unilaterally deviating from their strategy. These equilibrium strategies determine an equilibrium to
6156-568: The Brouwer fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets , which became a standard method in game theory and mathematical economics . His paper was followed by Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (1944), co-written with Oskar Morgenstern , which considered cooperative games of several players. The second edition provided an axiomatic theory of expected utility , which allowed mathematical statisticians and economists to treat decision-making under uncertainty. Game theory
6270-730: The Shapley value were developed. The 1950s also saw the first applications of game theory to philosophy and political science . The first mathematical discussion of the prisoner's dilemma appeared, and an experiment was undertaken by mathematicians Merrill M. Flood and Melvin Dresher , as part of the RAND Corporation 's investigations into game theory. RAND pursued the studies because of possible applications to global nuclear strategy . In 1965, Reinhard Selten introduced his solution concept of subgame perfect equilibria , which further refined
6384-544: The intention with self-efficacy from individual's mastery in problem solving and task completion is important to bring about a positive change. Self efficacy is often cemented through standard persuasive techniques. Game theory Game theory is the study of mathematical models of strategic interactions. It has applications in many fields of social science , and is used extensively in economics , logic , systems science and computer science . Initially, game theory addressed two-person zero-sum games , in which
6498-404: The outcome has net results greater or less than zero. Informally, in non-zero-sum games, a gain by one player does not necessarily correspond with a loss by another. Furthermore, constant-sum games correspond to activities like theft and gambling, but not to the fundamental economic situation in which there are potential gains from trade . It is possible to transform any constant-sum game into
6612-565: The 1980s and 2000s, mindset research and its applications began to expand into other areas, including Glen Fisher’s (1988) studies in international relations, Ellen Langer ’s (1989) research on mindfulness, Peter Gollwitzer ’s (1989) psychology of action phases, Donella Meadows ’ (1991) theory of systems change, Stephen Rhinesmith’s (1992) work on global mindsets, Ronald Heifetz’s (1994) practice of adaptive leadership, Carol Dweck ’s (2006) concept of implicit theories, and Robert Kegan ’s and Lisa Lahey’s (2009) theory of adult development. In 2024,
6726-416: The 1980s, organizations observed that executive effectiveness did not necessarily translate cross-culturally. A global mindset emerged as an explanation. Cross-cultural leaders were hypothesized to need an additional skill, ability, or proficiency (a global mindset) to be effective regardless of culture or context. Cultural agility refers to such a need. A defining characteristic of the study of global mindset
6840-572: The Nash equilibrium. Later he would introduce trembling hand perfection as well. In 1994 Nash, Selten and Harsanyi became Economics Nobel Laureates for their contributions to economic game theory. In the 1970s, game theory was extensively applied in biology , largely as a result of the work of John Maynard Smith and his evolutionarily stable strategy . In addition, the concepts of correlated equilibrium , trembling hand perfection and common knowledge were introduced and analyzed. In 1994, John Nash
6954-491: The Theory of the Game of Chess ), which proved that the optimal chess strategy is strictly determined . The work of John von Neumann established game theory as its own independent field in the early-to-mid 20th century, with von Neumann publishing his paper On the Theory of Games of Strategy in 1928. Von Neumann's original proof used Brouwer's fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets , which became
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#17328524593207068-555: The Wild (1995) and Maximilian Senges' Knowledge Entrepreneurship in Universities (2007). Hutchins analyzed a team of naval navigators as a cognitive unit or computational system, and Senges explained how a collective mindset is part of university strategy and practice. Parallels exist in collective intelligence and the wisdom of the crowd . Zara said that since collective reflection is more explicit, discursive, and conversational, it needs
7182-436: The actions of the other players. However, there are many situations in game theory where participants do not fully understand the characteristics of their opponents. Negotiators may be unaware of their opponent's valuation of the object of negotiation, companies may be unaware of their opponent's cost functions, combatants may be unaware of their opponent's strengths, and jurors may be unaware of their colleague's interpretation of
7296-413: The brain". A second strategy to promote a growth mindset in the classroom is more explicit, establishing personal goals, and having students "write about and share with one another something they used to be poor at and now are very good at." Hinda Hussein studied the positive effect of reflective journal writing on students' growth mindset; journaling can improve a student's conceptual knowledge and enhance
7410-587: The choice by eliminating the less appealing products until there is one left. After this has been identified, the consumer will purchase the product. Finally, the consumer will evaluate the purchase decision, and the purchased product, bringing in factors such as value for money, quality of goods, and purchase experience. However, this logical process does not always happen this way, people are emotional and irrational creatures. People make decisions with emotion and then justify them with logic according to Robert Cialdini Ph.D. Psychology. The Marketing mix (4 P's) are
7524-433: The closed-loop strategies are found using Bellman's Dynamic Programming method. A particular case of differential games are the games with a random time horizon . In such games, the terminal time is a random variable with a given probability distribution function. Therefore, the players maximize the mathematical expectation of the cost function. It was shown that the modified optimization problem can be reformulated as
7638-553: The concept of incentive compatibility . In 2012, Alvin E. Roth and Lloyd S. Shapley were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics "for the theory of stable allocations and the practice of market design". In 2014, the Nobel went to game theorist Jean Tirole . A game is cooperative if the players are able to form binding commitments externally enforced (e.g. through contract law ). A game
7752-457: The continuous pursuit and evasion game are continuous games where the evolution of the players' state variables is governed by differential equations . The problem of finding an optimal strategy in a differential game is closely related to the optimal control theory. In particular, there are two types of strategies: the open-loop strategies are found using the Pontryagin maximum principle while
7866-425: The differences between sequential and simultaneous games are as follows: An important subset of sequential games consists of games of perfect information. A game with perfect information means that all players, at every move in the game, know the previous history of the game and the moves previously made by all other players. An imperfect information game is played when the players do not know all moves already made by
7980-1000: The difficulty of finding an optimal strategy stems from the multiplicity of possible moves are called combinatorial games. Examples include chess and Go . Games that involve imperfect information may also have a strong combinatorial character, for instance backgammon . There is no unified theory addressing combinatorial elements in games. There are, however, mathematical tools that can solve some particular problems and answer some general questions. Games of perfect information have been studied in combinatorial game theory , which has developed novel representations, e.g. surreal numbers , as well as combinatorial and algebraic (and sometimes non-constructive ) proof methods to solve games of certain types, including "loopy" games that may result in infinitely long sequences of moves. These methods address games with higher combinatorial complexity than those usually considered in traditional (or "economic") game theory. A typical game that has been solved this way
8094-414: The earliest studies to explicitly include mindset as an area of focus were conducted in the 1910s and 1920s, primarily within a psychology and education context. This includes studies by scholars including Thaddeus Lincoln Bolton (1909), Edward Kellogg Strong and Margaret Hart Strong (1913), Edward Lee Thorndike (1913), Alexander James Inglis (1918), William Heard Kilpatrick (1921), and more. Between
8208-534: The equilibrium school, introducing equilibrium coarsening and correlated equilibria, and developing an extensive formal analysis of the assumption of common knowledge and of its consequences. In 2007, Leonid Hurwicz , Eric Maskin , and Roger Myerson were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory". Myerson's contributions include the notion of proper equilibrium , and an important graduate text: Game Theory, Analysis of Conflict . Hurwicz introduced and formalized
8322-443: The evidence at trial. In some cases, participants may know the character of their opponent well, but may not know how well their opponent knows his or her own character. Bayesian game means a strategic game with incomplete information. For a strategic game, decision makers are players, and every player has a group of actions. A core part of the imperfect information specification is the set of states. Every state completely describes
8436-407: The expectation that when one gives, one will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of
8550-426: The fact that barriers to action are easily overcome. The theory of planned behavior suggests using persuasive messages for tackling behavioral beliefs to increase the readiness to perform a behavior, called intentions . The theory of planned behavior advocates the need to tackle normative beliefs and control beliefs in any attempt to change behavior. Challenging the normative beliefs is not enough but to follow through
8664-488: The first systematic reviews of the mindset field were published by researcher Ash Buchanan, exploring how mindset definitions, theories, and type-based classifications have changed over time and across various contexts. The findings from these reviews were published in the Handbook of Mindset Research. Buchanan also made a significant contribution to the field by presenting the first comprehensive view of mindset psychology based on
8778-435: The fixed and growth mindsets. The benefit mindset describes society's leaders, who promote individual and collective well-being: people who discover their strengths to contribute to causes greater than the self. They question why they do what they do, positioning their actions within a purposeful context. Originating from the study of organizational leadership and coinciding with the growth of multinational corporations during
8892-412: The game pictured in this section's graphic is asymmetric despite having identical strategy sets for both players. Zero-sum games (more generally, constant-sum games) are games in which choices by players can neither increase nor decrease the available resources. In zero-sum games, the total benefit goes to all players in a game, for every combination of strategies, and always adds to zero (more informally,
9006-559: The game. For some problems, different approaches to modeling stochastic outcomes may lead to different solutions. For example, the difference in approach between MDPs and the minimax solution is that the latter considers the worst-case over a set of adversarial moves, rather than reasoning in expectation about these moves given a fixed probability distribution. The minimax approach may be advantageous where stochastic models of uncertainty are not available, but may also be overestimating extremely unlikely (but costly) events, dramatically swaying
9120-582: The greater good, but centers on individual defense; truth, if perceived as harmful to the person concerned, would be denied. This may allow personal growth, but no organizational growth or development. The deliberative and implemental mindsets are part of the decision making process in goal setting and goal striving. When someone has a deliberative mindset, they are considering a variety of actions and have not yet settled on what they are going to do. This person will tend to be open to alternative options when presented and will explore ideas until they have decided upon
9234-418: The impact of teacher training to influence mindset. The teachers in this study had six training sessions, and Seaton found that the sessions had an impact on their mindsets which was sustained three months afterward. The results of this study suggest that adult mindsets are malleable, and can shift with appropriate supports. In 2015, Ash Buchanan and Margaret L. Kern proposed a benefit mindset : an evolution of
9348-410: The mathematics involved are substantially the same, e.g. using Markov decision processes (MDP). Stochastic outcomes can also be modeled in terms of game theory by adding a randomly acting player who makes "chance moves" (" moves by nature "). This player is not typically considered a third player in what is otherwise a two-player game, but merely serves to provide a roll of the dice where required by
9462-454: The method for finding mutually consistent solutions for two-person zero-sum games. Subsequent work focused primarily on cooperative game theory, which analyzes optimal strategies for groups of individuals, presuming that they can enforce agreements between them about proper strategies. In his 1938 book Applications aux Jeux de Hasard and earlier notes, Émile Borel proved a minimax theorem for two-person zero-sum matrix games only when
9576-406: The needs of each individual in an ethical and respected manner. Health belief model encourages increasing individuals' perceived susceptibility to negative health outcomes and making individuals aware of the severity of such negative health behavior outcomes. E.g. through health promotion messages. In addition, the health belief model suggests the need to focus on the benefits of health behaviors and
9690-402: The new learning opportunity". Grit , a personality trait combining determination and perseverance, is related to a growth mindset. Keown and Bourke discussed the importance of a growth mindset and grit. Their 2019 study found that people with lower economic status had a greater chance of success if they had a growth mindset and were willing to work through tribulation. Much of Dweck's research
9804-606: The onset of chronic disease and extending active lifespan. Smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, gaps in primary care services and low screening uptake are all significant determinants of poor health, and changing such behaviors should lead to improved health. For example, in US, Healthy People 2000, United States Department of Health and Human Services , lists increased physical activity, changes in nutrition and reductions in tobacco, alcohol and drug use as important for health promotion and disease prevention. Any interventions done are matched with
9918-482: The opponent such as a simultaneous move game. Examples of perfect-information games include tic-tac-toe , checkers , chess , and Go . Many card games are games of imperfect information, such as poker and bridge . Perfect information is often confused with complete information , which is a similar concept pertaining to the common knowledge of each player's sequence, strategies, and payoffs throughout gameplay. Complete information requires that every player know
10032-438: The organism to the environment. The endocrine system and the nervous system likely influence human behavior. Complexity in the behavior of an organism may be correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually with
10146-525: The other nation's power limited. Also included in this mindset is the belief in game theory , in a chain of command in control of nuclear materials, and in the mutual assured destruction of both in a nuclear war. This mindset prevented an attack by either country, but deterrence theory has made assessments of the Cold War mindset a subject of controversy. Modern military theory attempts to challenge entrenched mindsets in asymmetric warfare , terrorism , and
10260-462: The other", or teaching junior-high-school students "that every time they try hard and learn something new, their brain forms new connections that, over time, make them smarter." Much research in education focuses on a student's ability to adopt a growth mindset, and less attention is paid to teachers' mindsets and their influence on students. Hattie writes, "Differing mindsets, or assumptions, that teachers possess about themselves and their students play
10374-407: The outcome and decisions of other players. This need not be perfect information about every action of earlier players; it might be very little knowledge. For instance, a player may know that an earlier player did not perform one particular action, while they do not know which of the other available actions the first player actually performed. The difference between simultaneous and sequential games
10488-441: The outcomes or consequences of behavior. People with a promotion mindset focus on achievement and accomplishment. Those with a prevention mindset pay closer attention to avoiding negative outcomes. They act more out of a sense of obligation and the fulfillment of duty than to seek any sort of reward. Both of these mindsets can be caused or influenced by individual disposition or by environmental stimuli. Those who are dispositionally in
10602-619: The past, large promotional campaigns and heavy advertising would convert into sales for a business, but nowadays businesses can have success on products with little or no advertising. This is due to the Internet and in particular social media. They rely on word of mouth from consumers using social media, and as products trend online, so sales increase as products effectively promote themselves. Thus, promotion by businesses does not necessarily result in consumer behavior trending towards purchasing products. The way that product influences consumer behavior
10716-467: The pay-off matrix is symmetric and provided a solution to a non-trivial infinite game (known in English as Blotto game ). Borel conjectured the non-existence of mixed-strategy equilibria in finite two-person zero-sum games , a conjecture that was proved false by von Neumann. In 1950, John Nash developed a criterion for mutual consistency of players' strategies known as the Nash equilibrium , applicable to
10830-493: The person, and the situation they are in. Behavior informatics also called behavior computing , explores behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives. Different from applied behavior analysis from the psychological perspective, BI builds computational theories, systems and tools to qualitatively and quantitatively model, represent, analyze, and manage behaviors of individuals, groups and/or organizations. Health behavior refers to
10944-406: The possible strategies available to players due to the possibility of external enforcement of cooperation. A symmetric game is a game where each player earns the same payoff when making the same choice. In other words, the identity of the player does not change the resulting game facing the other player. Many of the commonly studied 2×2 games are symmetric. The standard representations of chicken ,
11058-412: The prisoner's dilemma, and the stag hunt are all symmetric games. The most commonly studied asymmetric games are games where there are not identical strategy sets for both players. For instance, the ultimatum game and similarly the dictator game have different strategies for each player. It is possible, however, for a game to have identical strategies for both players, yet be asymmetric. For example,
11172-475: The processes consumers go through, and reactions they have towards products or services. It has to do with consumption, and the processes consumers go through around purchasing and consuming goods and services. Consumers recognize needs or wants, and go through a process to satisfy these needs. Consumer behavior is the process they go through as customers, which includes types of products purchased, amount spent, frequency of purchases and what influences them to make
11286-571: The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction . These threats are "a revolution in military affairs", requiring rapid adaptation to new threats and circumstances. Building on Magoroh Maruyama 's concept of mindscape, mindset includes a cultural and social orientation: hierarchical and egalitarian individualism, hierarchical and egalitarian collectivism, hierarchic and egalitarian synergism, and hierarchical and egalitarian populism. Collective mindsets are described in Edwin Hutchins 's Cognition in
11400-557: The purchase decision or not. Circumstances that influence consumer behaviour are varied, with contributions from both internal and external factors. Internal factors include attitudes, needs, motives, preferences and perceptual processes, whilst external factors include marketing activities, social and economic factors, and cultural aspects. Doctor Lars Perner of the University of Southern California claims that there are also physical factors that influence consumer behavior, for example, if
11514-416: The recent past. Such rules may feature imitation, optimization, or survival of the fittest. In biology, such models can represent evolution , in which offspring adopt their parents' strategies and parents who play more successful strategies (i.e. corresponding to higher payoffs) have a greater number of offspring. In the social sciences, such models typically represent strategic adjustment by players who play
11628-413: The search tends to rely on internal resources, retrieving alternatives from memory. Conversely, for high-involvement products, the search is typically more extensive, involving activities like reviewing reports, reading reviews, or seeking recommendations from friends. The consumer will then evaluate his or her alternatives, comparing price, and quality, doing trade-offs between products, and narrowing down
11742-404: The strategies and payoffs available to the other players but not necessarily the actions taken, whereas perfect information is knowledge of all aspects of the game and players. Games of incomplete information can be reduced, however, to games of imperfect information by introducing " moves by nature ". One of the assumptions of the Nash equilibrium is that every player has correct beliefs about
11856-452: The strategy in such scenarios if it is assumed that an adversary can force such an event to happen. (See Black swan theory for more discussion on this kind of modeling issue, particularly as it relates to predicting and limiting losses in investment banking.) General models that include all elements of stochastic outcomes, adversaries, and partial or noisy observability (of moves by other players) have also been studied. The " gold standard "
11970-629: The time lag that often occurs between certain behaviors and the development of disease, these indicators may foreshadow the future burdens and benefits of health-risk and health-promoting behaviors. A variety of studies have examined the relationship between health behaviors and health outcomes (e.g., Blaxter 1990) and have demonstrated their role in both morbidity and mortality. These studies have identified seven features of lifestyle which were associated with lower morbidity and higher subsequent long-term survival (Belloc and Breslow 1972): Health behaviors impact upon individuals' quality of life, by delaying
12084-423: The traditions of research and practice that are closely related to the origins and history of mindset psychology, some of which span back hundreds and thousands of years. Then, there are the lineages of research and practice that did not explicitly use the term mindset, but which bear some resemblance to it and are in some way related to this history. Mindset research is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry. Some of
12198-744: The understanding of their thoughts. Dweck has identified the word "yet" as a valuable tool to assess learning. If a teacher hears students saying that they are not good at something or cannot do something, they should interject "not yet" to reinforce the idea that ability and motivation are fluid. Dweck and Jo Boaler indicate a fixed mindset can lead to sex differences in education , which can partially explain low achievement and participation by minority and female students. Boaler builds on Dweck's research to show that "gender differences in mathematics performance only existed among fixed mindset students". Boaler and Dweck say that people with growth mindsets can gain knowledge. Boaler said, "The key growth mindset message
12312-484: The workplace. Other scholars have conducted research building on her findings. A 2018 study by Rhew et al. suggested that a growth-mindset intervention can increase the motivation of adolescent special-education participants. A 2019 study by Wang et al. suggested that substance use has adverse effects on adolescent reasoning. Developing a growth mindset in these adolescents was shown to reduce this adverse effect. These studies illustrate how educators can intervene, encouraging
12426-745: Was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in the Economic Sciences for his contribution to game theory. Nash's most famous contribution to game theory is the concept of the Nash equilibrium, which is a solution concept for non-cooperative games . A Nash equilibrium is a set of strategies, one for each player, such that no player can improve their payoff by unilaterally changing their strategy. In 2005, game theorists Thomas Schelling and Robert Aumann followed Nash, Selten, and Harsanyi as Nobel Laureates. Schelling worked on dynamic models, early examples of evolutionary game theory . Aumann contributed more to
12540-459: Was considered in the economics literature by Boyan Jovanovic and Robert W. Rosenthal , in the engineering literature by Peter E. Caines , and by mathematicians Pierre-Louis Lions and Jean-Michel Lasry. The games studied in game theory are well-defined mathematical objects. To be fully defined, a game must specify the following elements: the players of the game, the information and actions available to each player at each decision point, and
12654-614: Was developed extensively in the 1950s, and was explicitly applied to evolution in the 1970s, although similar developments go back at least as far as the 1930s. Game theory has been widely recognized as an important tool in many fields. John Maynard Smith was awarded the Crafoord Prize for his application of evolutionary game theory in 1999, and fifteen game theorists have won the Nobel Prize in economics as of 2020, including most recently Paul Milgrom and Robert B. Wilson . In 1713,
12768-500: Was difficult. An institution is related to collective mindset; an entrepreneurial mindset refers to a person who "values uncertainty in the marketplace and seeks to continuously identify opportunities with the potential to lead to important innovations". An institution with an entrepreneurial philosophy will have entrepreneurial goals and strategies. It fosters an entrepreneurial milieu, allowing each entity to pursue emerging opportunities. A collective mindset fosters values which lead to
12882-680: Was related to the effect of a student's mindset on classroom performance. For students to develop a growth mindset, a nurturing classroom culture must be established with appropriate praise and encouragement. According to Dweck, "Praising students for the process they have engaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies they used, the choices they made, the persistence they displayed, and so on—yields more long-term benefits than telling them they are 'smart' when they succeed". Teachers need to design meaningful learning activities for their students: "The teacher should portray challenges as fun and exciting, while portraying easy tasks as boring and less useful for
12996-464: Was that effort changes the brain by forming new connections, and that students control this process. The growth mindset intervention halted the students' decline in grades and started the students on a new pathway of improvement and high achievement". L. S. Blackwell presented research in 2015 exploring whether growth mindsets can be promoted in minority groups. Blackwell builds on Dweck's research, observing minority groups and finding that "students with
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