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71-442: A 2013 Cochrane review concluded that "most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications." The review found that midwifery-led care was associated with a reduction in the use of epidurals , with fewer episiotomies or instrumental births, and

142-436: A DVT. The baby is also checked for jaundice, signs of adequate feeding, or other concerns. The baby has a nursery exam between six and seventy two hours of birth to check for conditions such as heart defects, hip problems, or eye problems. In the community, the community midwife sees the woman at least until day ten. This does not mean she sees the woman and baby daily, but she cannot discharge them from her care until day ten at

213-412: A concentration in midwifery. Agnodice or Agnodike (Gr. Ἀγνοδίκη) was the earliest historical, and likely apocryphal, midwife mentioned among the ancient Greeks. Midwives were known by many different titles in antiquity, ranging from iatrinē (Gr. nurse ), maia (Gr., midwife), obstetrix (Lat., obstetrician ), and medica (Lat., doctor ). It appears as though midwifery was treated differently in

284-568: A decreased risk of losing the baby before 24 weeks' gestation. However, midwifery-led care was also associated with a longer mean length of labor as measured in hours. Trimester means "three months". A normal pregnancy lasts about nine months and has three trimesters. First trimester screening varies by country. Women are typically offered urinalysis (UA) and blood tests including a complete blood count (CBC), blood typing (including Rh screen), syphilis , hepatitis , HIV , and rubella testing. Additionally, women may have chlamydia testing via

355-461: A discussion and assistance with breastfeeding or a discussion about lactation suppression), abdominal palpation (if she has not had a caesarean section) to check for involution of the uterus, or a check of her caesarean wound (the dressing does not need to be removed for this), a check of her perineum, particularly if she tore or had stitches, reviewing her lochia, ensuring she has passed urine and had her bowels open and checking for signs and symptoms of

426-409: A good memory, loving work, respectable and generally not unduly handicapped as regards her senses [i.e., sight, smell, hearing], sound of limb, robust, and, according to some people, endowed with long slim fingers and short nails at her fingertips." Soranus also recommends that the midwife be of sympathetic disposition (although she need not have borne a child herself) and that she keep her hands soft for

497-402: A high quality care of the newborn, with medical or surgical conditions. Midwifery-led continuity of care is where one or more midwives have the primary responsibility for the continuity of care for childbearing women, with a multidisciplinary network of consultation and referral with other health care providers. This is different from "medical-led care" where an obstetrician or family physician

568-403: A long-term problem, particularly if the score improves at the five-minute mark. A constellation of factors may contribute to a low Apgar score value. An Apgar score that remains below three at five minutes and later times, such as 10, 15, or 30 minutes, does not provide supporting evidence for a specific illness but can sometimes be among the first indicators of neonatal encephalopathy. However,

639-402: A low stool in front of the woman, modestly looking away while also assisting the delivery by dilating and massaging the vagina, as encouraged by Soranus. The services of a midwife were not inexpensive; this fact that suggests poorer women who could not afford the services of a professional midwife often had to make do with female relatives. Many wealthier families had their own midwives. However,

710-467: A newborn with any severe deformities be exposed. A 2nd-century terracotta relief from the Ostian tomb of Scribonia Attice , wife of physician-surgeon M. Ulpius Amerimnus, details a childbirth scene. Scribonia was a midwife and the relief shows her in the midst of a delivery. A patient sits in the birth chair, gripping the handles and the midwife's assistant stands behind her providing support. Scribonia sits on

781-627: A normal and healthy process. While midwives play a much larger role in the care of pregnant mothers in Europe than in America, the medicalized model of birth still has influence in those countries, even though the World Health Organization recommends a natural, normal and humanized birth. The midwifery model of pregnancy and childbirth as a normal and healthy process plays a much larger role in Sweden and

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852-408: A piece of wool soaked in olive oil over the umbilical cord. After the delivery, the midwife made the initial call on whether or not an infant was healthy and fit to rear. She inspected the newborn for congenital deformities and testing its cry to hear whether or not it was robust and hearty. Ultimately, midwives made a determination about the chances for an infant's survival and likely recommended that

923-541: A recent retrospective study including 17 infants with an Apgar score of 0 at 10 minutes who received therapeutic hypothermia , 4 of the 8 surviving babies had no neurological abnormalities and only 1 infant had severe abnormalities, as assessed through brain MRI . During neonatal resuscitation, Apgar scores may not accurately represent the condition of the neonate as resuscitation measures (i.e. positive pressure ventilation and chest compressions) may artificially elevate scores. As

994-558: A result, the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists encourage the use of an expanded Apgar score report, which records resuscitation efforts utilized at each time point. A systematic review that analyzed the relationship between umbilical cord pH and neonatal outcomes found that low cord pH is strongly correlated with mortality, morbidity and cerebral palsy in childhood. To reduce

1065-422: A stool to the home where the delivery was to take place. In the seat of the birthstool was a crescent-shaped hole through which the baby would be delivered. The birthstool or chair often had armrests for the mother to grasp during the delivery. Most birthstools or chairs had backs which the patient could press against, but Soranus suggests that in some cases the chairs were backless and an assistant would stand behind

1136-628: A target of persecution and repression by public authorities because midwives possessed highly specialized knowledge and skills regarding not only assisting birth, but also contraception and abortion. At late 20th century, midwives were already recognized as highly trained and specialized professionals in obstetrics. However, at the beginning of the 21st century, the medical perception of pregnancy and childbirth as potentially pathological and dangerous still dominates Western culture. Midwives who work in hospital settings also have been influenced by this view, although by and large they are trained to view birth as

1207-402: A urine sample, and women considered at high risk are screened for sickle cell disease and thalassemia . Women must consent to all tests before they are carried out. The woman's blood pressure , height and weight are measured. Her past pregnancies and family, social, and medical history are discussed. Women may have an ultrasound scan during the first trimester which may be used to help find

1278-625: A way to determine the need for newborn resuscitation because supportive measures must be implemented prior to 1 minute after birth, the first time-point at which the Apgar score is determined. However, the Apgar score is a method of assessment endorsed by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologist and the American Academy of Pediatrics . Various members of the healthcare team, including midwives, nurses, or physicians, may be involved in

1349-566: A wide range of women, including old women who continued folk medical traditions in the villages of the Roman Empire , trained midwives who garnered their knowledge from a variety of sources, and highly trained women who were considered physicians. However, there were certain characteristics desired in a "good" midwife , as described by the physician Soranus of Ephesus in the 2nd century. He states in his work, Gynecology , that "a suitable person will be literate, with her wits about her, possessed of

1420-559: Is a backronym of Apgar's surname. Apgar originally developed the criteria as a way to address the lack of a standardized way to assess the need for assistive breathing procedures for newborns. In 1952, after some refinement of her initial system, Apgar presented the Apgar score at a joint meeting between the International Anesthesia Research Society and the International College of Anesthetists, and it

1491-426: Is divided into four stages. Following the birth, if the mother had an episiotomy or a tearing of the perineum , it is sutured. The midwife does regular assessments for uterine contraction, fundal height , and vaginal bleeding. Throughout labor and delivery the mother's vital signs (temperature, blood pressure, and pulse) are closely monitored and her fluid intake and output are measured. The midwife also monitors

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1562-567: Is preferred that the same individual determine the 1-minute and 5-minute Apgar scores. A 2023 paper by Amos Grunebaum , which reviewed the care of nine million babies, was published in the Journal of Perinatal Medicine ; the report showed that non-white babies were given lower Apgar scores than white babies, as their darker skin color often results in lower scores on the appearance measure, making them more likely to receive medical care that might not be needed. Some ten years after initial publication,

1633-525: Is primarily responsible. In "shared-care" models, responsibility may be shared between a midwife , an obstetrician and/or a family physician. The midwife is part of very intimate situations with the mother. For this reason, many say that the most important thing to look for in a midwife is comfort with them, as one will go to them with every question or problem. According to a Cochrane review of public health systems in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and

1704-533: Is the collection of Cochrane Reviews , a database of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that summarize and interpret the results of medical research. The Cochrane Library aims to make the results of well-conducted clinical trials readily available and is a key resource in evidence-based medicine . The Cochrane Library is a subscription-based database, published initially by Update Software and now published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. as part of Wiley Online Library. In many countries, including parts of Canada,

1775-526: The estimated due date . Some women may have genetic testing , such as screening for Down syndrome . Diet, exercise, and common disorders of pregnancy such as morning sickness are discussed. The mother visits the midwife monthly or more often during the second trimester. The mother's partner and/or the birth companion may accompany her. The midwife will discuss pregnancy issues such as fatigue, heartburn, varicose veins, and other common problems such as back pain. Blood pressure and weight are monitored and

1846-413: The umbilical cord , and cleansed the baby. The child was sprinkled with "fine and powdery salt, or natron or aphronitre" to soak up the birth residue, rinsed, and then powdered and rinsed again. Next, the midwives cleared away any and all mucus present from the nose, mouth, ears, or anus. Midwives were encouraged by Soranus to put olive oil in the baby's eyes to cleanse away any birth residue, and to place

1917-524: The Apgar score is assigned at the one-minute mark. Therefore, the Apgar score is not used to determine if initial resuscitation is needed, rather it is used to determine if resuscitation efforts should be continued. Variation between the one-minute and five-minute Apgar scores can be used to assess an infant's response to resuscitation. If the score is below seven at the five-minute mark, the Neonatal Resuscitation Program guidelines specify that

1988-462: The Apgar scoring of a neonate. The test is generally done at one and five minutes after birth and may be repeated later if the score is and remains low. Scores of seven and above are generally normal; four to six, fairly low; and three and below are generally regarded as critically low and cause for immediate resuscitative efforts. A low score on the one-minute mark may show that the neonate requires medical attention, but does not necessarily indicate

2059-446: The Apgar test's purpose is to determine quickly whether or not a newborn needs immediate medical care. It is not designed to predict long-term health issues. A score of 10 is uncommon, due to the prevalence of transient cyanosis , and does not substantially differ from a score of nine. Transient cyanosis is common, particularly in babies born at high altitude. In cases where a newborn needs resuscitation, it should be initiated before

2130-637: The Cochrane Library provided temporary unrestricted access to everyone in every country in response to the COVID-19 pandemic . The Cochrane Library consists of the following databases after significant changes in 2018: The Cochrane Library now also features results from Special Collections and Editorials as well as an option to link out to other reviews compiled by Epistemonikos . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Protocols, and CENTRAL are produced by Cochrane . The Cochrane reviews take

2201-550: The Cochrane review included licensed midwives, and none included lay or traditional midwives. Also, no trial included out of hospital birth. Compared to women in other care models, women in continuity models of midwifery care are more satisfied with their care. The updated version of the Cochrane review also shows a cost-saving effect in continuity models, compared to other midwifery models of care. In continuity models of midwifery care,

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2272-470: The East was a respectable profession in which respectable women could earn their livelihoods and enough esteem to publish works read and cited by male physicians. In fact, a number of Roman legal provisions strongly suggest that midwives enjoyed status and remuneration comparable to that of male doctors. One example of such a midwife is Salpe of Lemnos , who wrote on women's diseases and was mentioned several times in

2343-662: The Eastern end of the Mediterranean basin as opposed to the West. In the East, some women advanced beyond the profession of midwife ( maia ) to that of gynaecologist ( iatros gynaikeios , translated as women's doctor ), for which formal training was required. Also, there were some gynecological tracts circulating in the medical and educated circles of the East that were written by women with Greek names, although these women were few in number. Based on these facts, it would appear that midwifery in

2414-457: The Netherlands than the rest of Europe, however. Swedish midwives stand out, since they administer 80 percent of prenatal care and more than 80 percent of family planning services in Sweden. Midwives in Sweden attend all normal births in public hospitals and Swedish women tend to have fewer interventions in hospitals than American women. The Dutch infant mortality rate is one of the lowest rate in

2485-460: The United Kingdom, "most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications." Midwifery-led care has effects including the following: There was no difference in the number of Caesarean sections . All trials in

2556-627: The United Kingdom, Ireland, the Scandinavian countries, New Zealand, Australia, India, South Africa, and Poland, it has been made available free to all residents by "national provision" (typically a government or Department of Health pays for the license). There are also arrangements for free access in much of Latin America and in "low-income countries", typically via HINARI . All countries have free access to two-page abstracts of all Cochrane Reviews and short plain-language summaries of selected articles. Cochrane Reviews appear to be relatively underused in

2627-682: The United States and Canada. In Northern Europe and Russia, the situation for midwives was a little easier - in the Duchy of Estonia in Imperial Russia , Professor Christian Friedrich Deutsch established a midwifery school for women at the University of Dorpat in 1811, which existed until World War I. It was the predecessor for the Tartu Health Care College . Training lasted for 7 months and in

2698-483: The United States for two reasons: 1) Public access to the Cochrane Library in the United States is limited (the state of Wyoming is an exception, having paid for a license to enable free access to Cochrane Reviews for all residents of Wyoming). 2) The government-funded U.S. National Library of Medicine maintains an alternative database MEDLINE , which is free of charge to everyone and has significantly more extensive coverage than Cochrane. From 26 March to 26 May 2020,

2769-562: The World Health Organization, women should be able to have their children where ever they feel the most safe, so if having a midwife and proceeding with an at-home birth is what makes some women feel safe, then midwifery-led continuity of care might be the best option for them. In ancient Egypt , midwifery was a recognized female occupation, as attested by the Ebers Papyrus which dates from 1900 to 1550 BCE. Five columns of this papyrus deal with obstetrics and gynecology , especially concerning

2840-513: The acceleration of parturition (the action or process of giving birth to offspring) and the birth prognosis of the newborn. The Westcar papyrus , dated to 1700 BCE, includes instructions for calculating the expected date of confinement and describes different styles of birth chairs. Bas reliefs in the royal birth rooms at Luxor and other temples also attest to the heavy presence of midwifery in this culture. Midwifery in Greco-Roman antiquity covered

2911-463: The advent of forceps in the seventeenth century and since then childbirth has progressively moved from a woman supported experience in the home to a medical intervention within the hospital. There are significant advantages to assuming an upright position in labor and birth, such as stronger and more efficient uterine contractions aiding cervical dilatation, increased pelvic inlet and outlet diameters and improved uterine contractility. Upright positions in

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2982-468: The baby on five different areas—each worth between 0 and 2 points. These areas are: colour, respiratory effort, tone, heart rate, and response to stimuli. The midwife checks the baby for any obvious problems, weighs the baby, and measure head circumference. The midwife ensures the cord has been clamped securely and the baby has the appropriate name tags on (if in hospital). Babies lengths are not routinely measured. The midwife performs these checks as close to

3053-403: The baby's pulse rate, palpates the mother's abdomen to monitor the baby's position, and does vaginal examinations as indicated. If the birth deviates from the norm at any stage, the midwife requests assistance from the multi-disciplinary team. Until the last century most women have used both the upright position and alternative positions to give birth. The lithotomy position was not used until

3124-466: The birthing process, although they may also have helped with other medical problems relating to women when needed. Often, the midwife would call for the assistance of a physician when a more difficult birth was anticipated. In many cases the midwife brought along two or three assistants. In antiquity, it was believed by both midwives and physicians that a normal delivery was made easier when a woman sat upright. Therefore, during parturition, midwives brought

3195-410: The categories developed by Apgar used to assess the health of a newborn remain largely the same as in 1952, though the way they are implemented and used has evolved over the years. The score is determined through the evaluation of the newborn in five criteria: activity (tone), pulse, grimace, appearance, and respiration. For each criterion, newborns can receive a score from 0 to 2. The list of criteria

3266-414: The comfort of both mother and child. Pliny , another physician from this time, valued nobility and a quiet and inconspicuous disposition in a midwife. There appears to have been three "grades" of midwives present: The first was technically proficient; the second may have read some of the texts on obstetrics and gynecology; but the third was highly trained and reasonably considered a medical specialist with

3337-404: The earliest. Postnatal checks include neonatal screening test (NST, or heel prick test) around day five. The baby is weighed and the midwife plans visits according to the health and needs of mother and baby. They are discharged to the care of the health visitor. At birth, the baby receives an Apgar score at, at the least, one minute and five minutes of age. This is a score out of 10 that assesses

3408-553: The efficacy of a particular medical intervention. Finished reviews are available as a full report with diagrams, in condensed form or as a plain language summary, in order to provide for every reader of the review. According to Journal Citation Reports , The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews has a 2021 impact factor of 11.874, ranking 20th of 172 journals in the Medicine, General and Internal category, down from 11th in 2020 (167 journals). Reviews are abstracted and indexed in

3479-691: The end a certificate for practice was issued to the female students. Despite accusations that midwives were "incompetent and ignorant", some argued that poorly trained surgeons were far more of a danger to pregnant women. In 1846, the physician Ignaz Semmelweiss observed that more women died in maternity wards staffed by male surgeons than by female midwives, and traced these outbreaks of puerperal fever back to (then all-male) medical students not washing their hands properly after dissecting cadavers , but his sanitary recommendations were ignored until acceptance of germ theory became widespread. The argument that surgeons were more dangerous than midwives lasted until

3550-468: The following bibliographic databases : Science Citation Index Expanded , Scopus , CINAHL , EMBASE , MEDLINE . The Cochrane Library Feedback tool allows users to provide comments on and feedback of Cochrane Reviews and Protocols in The Cochrane Library. If accepted, the feedback will be published in a scrolling list of comments in reverse chronological order, with the most recent submission at

3621-573: The format of full-length methodological studies. Cochrane researchers will perform searches of medical and health databases including MEDLINE / PubMed , EMBASE , PsycINFO , CINAHL , etc.; a continually updated database of trials called the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); hand searching, where researchers look through entire libraries of scientific journals by hand and; reference checking of obtained articles in order to identify additional studies that are relevant to

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3692-405: The infant's Apgar score should be reassessed at five-minute intervals for up to 20 minutes. Exceedingly few infants who have an Apgar score of 0 at 10 minutes of age survive with intact neurological function. As a result, the 2011 Neonatal Resuscitation Program suggests that if no pulse is appreciable at 10 minutes of life, "discontinuation of resuscitative efforts may be appropriate." However, in

3763-489: The midwife measures the mother's abdomen to see if the baby is growing as expected. Lab tests such as a UA, CBC, and glucose tolerance test are done if clinically indicated. In the third trimester the midwife will see the mother every two weeks until week 36 and every week after that. Weight, blood pressure, and abdominal measurements will continue to be done. Lab tests such as a CBC and UA may be done with additional testing done for at-risk pregnancies. The midwife palpates

3834-604: The midwife-woman relationship is developing over time. The deepened relationship has shown to be of great importance and is in a systematic review described as "the viechle through which personalised care, trust and empowerment are achieved in the continuity of care midwifery model". In some cultures, midwifery is the most traditional way of carrying out a pregnancy and childbirth, and it has been conducted for multiple generations. Child birthing women in these cultures, take Zimbabwe for example, feel that health facilities are not as comforting as cultural roots of care. Also, according to

3905-436: The mother as possible and returns the baby to the mother quickly. Skin-to-skin is encouraged, as this regulates the baby's heart rate, breathing, oxygen saturation, and temperature—and promotes bonding and breastfeeding. In some countries, such as Chile , the midwife is the professional who can direct neonatal intensive care units. This is an advantage for these professionals, who can use the knowledge of perinatology to bring

3976-497: The mother during labor, gestational age or trauma. Inappropriately using the Apgar score has led to errors in diagnosing asphyxia. Various studies have shown that the Apgar score has variability between individual medical providers. One study was done in which several health care providers were assigned to give Apgar scores to the same infants. Results showed an Apgar score consistency of 55% to 82% between health care providers. Ideally, to limit variability and bolster consistency, it

4047-436: The mother to support her. The midwife sat facing the mother, encouraging and supporting her through the birth, perhaps offering instruction on breathing and pushing, sometimes massaging her vaginal opening, and supporting her perineum during the delivery of the baby. The assistants may have helped by pushing downwards on the top of the mother's abdomen. Finally, the midwife received the infant, placed it in pieces of cloth, cut

4118-422: The question they are attempting to answer. The quality of each study is carefully assessed using predefined criteria and evidence of weak methodology or the possibility that a study may have been affected by bias is reported in the review. Cochrane researchers then apply statistical analysis to compare the data of the trials. This creates a review of studies, or systematic review , giving a comprehensive view of

4189-579: The risk of negative outcomes, it is recommended to obtain a sample of the umbilical artery blood gas when a newborn has an Apgar score of five or less at the five-minute mark. Recognizing the importance of skin to skin contact (SSC), the World Health Organization (WHO), as part of the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative , recommends that the Apgar score should be done while SSC is underway whenever possible. This recommendation

4260-455: The second stage include sitting, squatting, kneeling, and being on hands and knees. For women who have a hospital birth, the minimum hospital stay is six hours. Women who leave before this do so against medical advice. Women may choose when to leave the hospital. Full postnatal assessments are conducted daily whilst inpatient, or more frequently if needed. A postnatal assessment includes the woman's observations, general well-being, breasts (either

4331-416: The socioeconomic status of the patient. From the 18th century, a conflict between surgeons and midwives arose, as medical men began to assert that their modern scientific techniques were better for mothers and infants than the folk medicine practiced by midwives. As doctors and medical associations pushed for a legal monopoly on obstetrical care, midwifery became outlawed or heavily regulated throughout

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4402-524: The study of bacteriology became popular in the early 1900s and hospital hygiene was improved. Women began to feel safer in the setting of the hospitals with the amount of aid and the ease of birth that they experienced with doctors. "Physicians trained in the new century found a great contrast between their hospital and obstetrics practice in women's homes where they could not maintain sterile conditions or have trained help." German social scientists Gunnar Heinsohn and Otto Steiger theorize that midwifery became

4473-628: The top of the page. The Collaboration has a procedure for the event of serious error, an event which has only occurred once in its history. Annual colloquia have been conducted by Cochrane since 1993. From 1994 onwards, Cochrane has maintained a database of posters and presentations of past colloquia. From 2009 onwards, Cochrane published the abstracts of those colloquia as supplements to the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . From 2010 to 2016, an annual newsletter related to Cochrane methodology called Cochrane Methods ( ISSN   2044-4702 ),

4544-533: The vast majority of women in the Greco-Roman world very likely received their maternity care from hired midwives. They may have been highly trained or possessed only a rudimentary knowledge of obstetrics. Also, many families had a choice of whether or not they wanted to employ a midwife who practiced the traditional folk medicine or the newer methods of professional parturition. Like a lot of other factors in antiquity, quality gynecological care often depended heavily on

4615-438: The woman's abdomen to establish the lie, presentation and position of the fetus and later, the engagement. A pelvic exam may be done to see if the mother's cervix is dilating. The midwife and the mother discuss birthing options and write a birth care plan. Midwives are qualified to assist with a normal vaginal delivery while more complicated deliveries are handled by a health care provider who has had further training. Childbirth

4686-425: The women as freed, it can be proposed that midwives were generally valued enough, and earned enough income, to be able to gain their freedom. It is not known from these epitaphs how certain slave women were selected for training as midwives. Slave girls may have been apprenticed, and it is most likely that mothers taught their daughters. The actual duties of the midwife in antiquity consisted mainly of assisting in

4757-522: The works of Pliny. However, in the Roman West, information about practicing midwives comes mainly from funerary epitaphs. Two hypotheses are suggested by looking at a small sample of these epitaphs. The first is the midwifery was not a profession to which freeborn women of families that had enjoyed free status of several generations were attracted; therefore it seems that most midwives were of servile origin. Second, since most of these funeral epitaphs describe

4828-450: The world, at 4.0 deaths per thousand births, while the United States ranked twenty-second. Midwives in the Netherlands and Sweden owe a great deal of their success to supportive government policies. Notes Bibliography Cochrane review The Cochrane Library (named after Archie Cochrane ) is a collection of databases in medicine and other healthcare specialties provided by Cochrane and other organizations. At its core

4899-462: Was adopted by the American Academy of Pediatrics in 2009. There are numerous factors that contribute to the Apgar score, several of which are subjective. Examples of subjective factors include but are not limited to color, tone, and reflex irritability. Preterm infants may receive a lower score in these categories due to lack of maturity rather than asphyxia. Other factors that may contribute to variability among infants are birth defects, sedation of

4970-424: Was published as an annual supplement. Apgar score The Apgar score is a quick way for health professionals to evaluate the health of all newborns at 1 and 5 minutes after birth and in response to resuscitation . It was originally developed in 1952 by an anesthesiologist at Columbia University, Virginia Apgar , to address the need for a standardized way to evaluate infants shortly after birth. Today,

5041-456: Was then published in Anesthesia & Analgesia in 1953. In 1955, efforts to establish a scientific basis to the score increased. Alongside Duncan Holaday and Stanley James, Apgar published a research paper using the scores of 15,348 infants to establish the association between a low Apgar score (0-2) and laboratory findings characteristics of asphyxia. The Apgar score is no longer used as

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