The history of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom covers English, British, and United Kingdom's foreign policy from about 1500 to 2000. For the current situation since 2000 see foreign relations of the United Kingdom .
124-566: The Midlothian campaign of 1878–80 was a series of foreign policy speeches given by William Gladstone , former leader of Britain's Liberal Party . Organised by the Earl of Rosebery as a media event, it is often cited as the first modern political campaign . It also set the stage for Gladstone's comeback as a politician. It takes its name from the Midlothian constituency in Scotland where Gladstone (who
248-454: A "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses – an irrational anxiety about Napoleon's motives and intentions." McLynn concludes that in the long run it proved to be the right choice for Britain, because in the long run Napoleon's intentions were hostile to the British national interest. Napoleon was not ready for war and so this was the best time for Britain to stop them. Britain seized upon
372-579: A French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result, but one which was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes. Soon after, the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximillian; Tournai , a more significant settlement, followed. Henry had led the army personally, complete with large entourage. His absence from the country, however, had prompted James IV of Scotland , to invade England at
496-527: A difficult commercial treaty with France in 1786. Pitt brought on board three foreign ministers with strong reputations. William Grenville (1791–1801) saw France as a profound threat to every nation in Europe, and he focused his attention on its defeat, working closely with his cousin PM Pitt. George Canning (1807–9), and Viscount Casterleagh (1812–15) were highly successful in organizing complex coalitions that in
620-588: A great deal of time in the Netherlands (where he continued to hold the dominant political office). His closest foreign-policy advisers were Dutch, most notably William Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland ; they shared little information with their English counterparts. The net result was that the Netherlands remained independent, and France never took control of the Spanish Netherlands. The wars were very expensive to both sides but inconclusive. William died just as
744-480: A keen new interest in humanitarian intervention, intended to prevent foreign governments from punishing people for their religious beliefs was emerging during the early eighteenth century. In large part this new sensibility was based on the happy experience of protecting Huguenots in France and taking in many refugees who became very good citizens. The Anglo-Dutch Wars were a series of three wars which took place between
868-472: A large number of undecided voters to the Liberals in the 1880s, and ousting Disraeli's last Conservative government. Equally important to the large scale of attendance at these meetings (several thousand came to each, and given the relatively narrow scale of the franchise , this meant Gladstone could address a large proportion of electors in each district) was the widespread reporting of Gladstone's speeches and
992-567: A military alliance of England, the Netherlands, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and some smaller states, to attack France at sea, and from land in different directions, while defending the Netherlands. Louis XIV tried to undermine this strategy by refusing to recognize William as king of England, and by giving diplomatic, military and financial support to a series of pretenders to the English throne, all based in France. William focused most of his attention on foreign policy and foreign wars, spending
1116-512: A shift in government financing from the income from royal agricultural estates and special imposts and taxes to reliance on customs and excise taxes and, after 1790, an income tax . Working with bankers in the City, the government raised large loans during wartime and paid them off in peacetime. The rise in taxes amounted to 20% of national income, but the private sector benefited from the increase in economic growth. The demand for war supplies stimulated
1240-520: A small role in the inconclusive but hard fought war that convulsed central Europe, while funding its ally Austria. The goal, as defined by foreign minister John Carteret was to limit the growth of French power, and protect the Electorate of Hanover , which was also ruled by King George II . In 1743 King George II led a 40,000-man British-Dutch-German army into the Rhine Valley . He was outmaneuvered by
1364-615: A strong political voice in many nations in Latin America and Asia. The Royal Navy was used to help suppress the African slave trade, and to reduce piracy. A favoured diplomatic strategy against France before 1815 was subsidising the armies of continental allies, such as the Kingdom of Prussia , thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. After 1815 the British Empire
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#17328551262511488-646: A time. By the 1790s, British diplomats had learned a great deal by closely watching their French rivals; aristocratic exiles from Paris began helping out as well. For the first time in the French wars, Britain set up an underground intelligence service that was in contact with local dissidents, and helped shape their protests. William Pitt the Younger , the Prime Minister during much of the French Revolutionary period ,
1612-532: A war against Spain. Meanwhile, the Protestant princes looked to Britain, since it was the strongest of all the Protestant countries, to give military support for their cause. His son-in-law and daughter became king and queen of Bohemia, which outraged Vienna. The Thirty Years' War began, as the Habsburg Emperor ousted the new king and queen of Bohemia, and massacred their followers. Catholic Bavaria then invaded
1736-585: Is most famously used to refer to the Ottoman Empire whilst they were in a state of decline. Emperor Nicholas I of the Russian Empire is considered to be the first to use the term "Sick Man" to describe the Ottoman Empire in the mid-19th century. The characterization existed during the " Eastern question " in diplomatic history, which also referred to the decline of the Ottoman Empire in terms of
1860-600: Is now Canada, exploring from Newfoundland to as far south as Delaware . He found no gold or spices and the king lost interest. Colonization was not a high priority for the Tudors, who were much more interested in raiding the Spanish treasure ships than in acquiring their own colonies. The "Treasure crisis" of 1568 was Queen Elizabeth's seizure of gold from Spanish treasure ships in English ports in November 1568. Chased by privateers in
1984-555: The 2008 Greek riots , rising unemployment , and political corruption . In spring 2011, Eurozine suggested that the European Union was the "sick man of Europe" by entitling an event focusing on the Eurozone crisis , "The EU: the real sick man of Europe?" In 2015 and 2016, Finland was called the "sick man of Europe" due to its recession and lacklustre growth, in a time when virtually all other European countries had recovered from
2108-798: The COVID-19 pandemic and the loss of access to inexpensive energy resulting from the Nord Stream pipelines sabotage . This has been demonstrated by Germany having the lowest GDP growth amongst the large G7 industrialised economies compared to the pre-pandemic level. Russian Tsar Nicholas I ( r. 1825–1855 ), seeking to expand into parts of the Ottoman Empire during the Eastern Question , had described Turkey as "sick" or "sick man" during his meeting with Austrian chancellor Metternich ( in office 1809–1848 ) in Münchengrätz , two months after
2232-584: The Convention of Nymegen was a treaty where England promised to end support for raids on Spanish shipping by English privateers such as Francis Drake and John Hawkins . It was finalized in the Convention of Bristol in August, 1574 in which both sides paid for what they had seized. Trade resumed between England and Spain and relations improved. The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) arose largely from religious differences;
2356-633: The English Reformation . In 1510, France, with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai , was winning a war against the Republic of Venice . Henry renewed his father's friendship with Louis XII of France , and signed a pact with King Ferdinand of Spain . After Pope Julius II created the anti-French Holy League in October 1511, Henry followed Spain's lead and brought England into
2480-648: The French Royal Army but he scored a narrow victory at the Battle of Dettingen . In the winter of 1743–44 the French planned to invade Britain in alliance with the Stuart pretender to George's throne; they were foiled by the Royal Navy. King George gave command to his son the Duke of Cumberland . He fared poorly and Britain pulled out of the war to deal with rebellion at home, where Cumberland gained fame by decisively suppressing
2604-690: The Jacobite Rising at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. Meanwhile, Britain did much better in North America, capturing the powerful Fortress of Louisbourg in Nova Scotia. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) favoured France, which won the most victories. Britain returned the Fortress of Louisbourg to France and the French left the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium). Prussia and Savoy were
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#17328551262512728-574: The States General to Spanish Habsburg rule. The English enjoyed a modest victory by " Singeing the King of Spain's Beard " in 1587 at Cádiz, the main port in Spain. The raid led by Francis Drake destroyed numerous merchant ships and captured some treasure. The great English triumph was the decisive defeat of the Spanish invasion attempt by the ill-fated Spanish Armada in 1588. After Elizabeth died in 1603,
2852-658: The Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi in September 1833. In his own writing, Metternich said he had argued against this characterization. Conventionally, foreign minister Metternich was opposed to the characterization of the Ottoman Empire as "sick man of the Bosphorus " because this could lead to his country, the Austrian Empire , becoming the "sick man of the Danube". Other historians, evaluating
2976-598: The Winter of Discontent – including having to seek loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Since the mid-2010s and into the 2020s, the term being used for Britain began to see a resurgence after Brexit , a cost-of-living crisis and industrial disputes and strikes becoming more commonplace. As of 2024, Germany is most commonly referred to as the 'Sick Man of Europe' due to its consistently stagnant economy and in particular, its industrial base, since
3100-634: The balance of power in Europe . After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, the term has been applied to other states. In modern usage, the term has faced criticism due to its origins and arguable over-usage. Throughout the 1960s to the 1980s, the term was also most notably used for the United Kingdom when it lost its superpower status as the Empire crumbled and its home islands experienced significant deindustrialization, coupled with high inflation and industrial unrest – such as
3224-504: The bear is dying … you may give him musk but even musk will not long keep him alive." Christopher de Bellaigue argued that neither Nicholas nor Seymour completed the epithet with the prepositional phrase "of Europe". The first appearance of the phrase "sick man of Europe" appears in The New York Times (12 May 1860): The condition of Austria at the present moment is not less threatening in itself, though less alarming for
3348-418: The third Wilson/Callaghan ministry due to industrial strife and poor economic performance compared with other European countries. Some observers consider this era to have started with the devaluation of the pound in 1967, culminating with the so-called Winter of Discontent of 1978–79. At different points throughout the decade, numerous countries such as Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, and Greece were cited by
3472-564: The thirteen American colonies in a war when Britain had no major allies. The Second British Empire was built fresh in Asia and Africa and reached its zenith in the 1920s. Foreign policy made sure it was never seriously threatened. The Statute of Westminster granted effective independence to Britain's self governing Dominions in 1931. In the era of Pax Britannica , 1815 to 1914, The British dominated world trade, finance and shipping. In what historians call " The Imperialism of Free Trade ", London had
3596-532: The "sick men" of Europe or the Old World . During the 1950s, France was characterized as the "sick man of Europe", due to a combination of economic issues and a fading optimism since the country was reestablished after World War II . In 1953, Paul Reynaud described France as such to the National Assembly . A 2007 report by Morgan Stanley referred to France as the "new sick man of Europe". This label
3720-442: The 'sick man of Europe' once again, it must now courageously turn its attention to the growth sectors of tomorrow instead of fearfully spending billions to preserve yesterday's energy-intensive industries." In 1972, PSDI politician Luigi Preti wrote a book titled Sick Italy ( Italia malata ). In it, he says that Italy was at risk of becoming "the sick man of Europe who has proved unable to keep in step as soon as he reached
3844-571: The 1660s, and there was little clamour to enter the Thirty Years War of 1618–48. Historian Lawrence Stone says England "was no more than a marginal player in the European power game." The increasingly powerful Royal Navy attracted admiration, but London used it to support its growing overseas empire. King Henry VII (reigned 1485–1509) concentrated on establishing peace in England, especially against
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3968-560: The American business press as being "on the verge of sickness" as well. In the summer of 2017, the United Kingdom was again referred to as the "sick man of Europe" due to the immediate impact of the EU referendum results . The term was used frequently by the early 2020s with regards to the economic effects of Brexit , ongoing industrial action in the public sector, leadership turmoil within
4092-508: The Bourbon kings of France to take control of Spain and its American empire. Queen Anne relied on an experienced team of experts, generals, diplomats, cabinet members, and War Office officials—most notably her most successful general John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough . He is best known for his great victory at the Battle of Blenheim in 1704. In 1706 he defeated the French at the Battle of Ramillies , captured their garrisons, and drove
4216-465: The British captured Guadeloupe Island and Quebec , smashed the French fleet at Quiberon Bay , and (in January 1760) defeated the French in southern India. Peace terms were hard to reach and the war dragged on until everyone was exhausted. The British national debt soared to £134 million from £72 million, but London had a financial system capable of handling the burden. Britain now had complete control of
4340-454: The British defence system, and especially of the Royal Navy, was defence of its overseas empire, in addition to defence of the homeland. The army, usually in cooperation with local forces, suppressed internal revolts, losing only the American War of Independence (1775–83). David Armitage says it became an element of the British creed that: Protestantism , oceanic commerce and mastery of
4464-636: The Bulgarian April Uprising quickly reached the British press, despite the strong censorship of the Turkish authorities. British public reaction was generally one of dismay, fuelled by the public prints. The government of Benjamin Disraeli continued its policy of support for the Ottoman Empire , an ally in the Crimean War and a bulwark against possible Russian expansion in the area. Gladstone took up
4588-624: The Conservative party, and the cost of living crisis . As of June 2023, the label is still frequently applied to the United Kingdom as inflation and price increases continue to generate economic uncertainty within the country. The term was also more literally applied during the COVID-19 pandemic after a new strain of coronavirus, the Alpha variant , led to a number of countries closing their borders to UK air travel. Swedish Diplomat and former Prime Minister Carl Bildt once referred to Serbia under
4712-483: The English and the Dutch from 1652 to 1674. The causes included political disputes and increasing competition from merchant shipping. Religion was not a factor, since both sides were Protestant. The British in the first war (1652–54) had the naval advantage with larger numbers of more powerful " ships of the line " which were well suited to the naval tactics of the era. The British also captured numerous Dutch merchant ships. In
4836-399: The English channel, five small Spanish ships carrying gold and silver worth 400,000 florins (£85,000) sought shelter in English harbors. The money was bound for the Netherlands as payment for Spanish soldiers who were fighting rebels there. Queen Elizabeth discovered that the gold was not owned by Spain, but was still owned by Italian bankers. She decided to seize it, and treated as a loan from
4960-405: The English ended high seas privateering against Spanish merchant ships. King James I (reigned 1603–25) was sincerely devoted to peace, not just for his three kingdoms, but for Europe as a whole. He called himself "Rex Pacificus" ("King of peace.") Europe was deeply polarized, and on the verge of the massive Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), with the smaller established Protestant states facing
5084-483: The French abandoned their long-term claim that the Old Pretender was the true King of England. Utrecht marked the end of French ambitions of hegemony in Europe expressed in the wars of Louis XIV, and preserved the European system based on the balance of power . British historian G. M. Trevelyan argues: That Treaty, which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked
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5208-468: The French out of most of the Spanish Netherlands. The Royal Navy with an assist from the Dutch in 1704-5 captured Gibraltar , which ever since has been the key to British power in the Mediterranean. The war dragged on and on, and neither France nor England could afford the mounting expenses, so a compromise solution was finally reached in the Treaty of Utrecht that protected most of England's interests;
5332-696: The Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705), who was based in Vienna. Leopold, however, was tied down in war with the Ottoman Empire on his eastern frontiers; William worked to achieve a negotiated settlement between the Ottomans and the Empire. William displayed in imaginative Europe-wide strategy, but Louis always managed to come up with a counter play. William was usually supported by the English leadership, which saw France as its greatest enemy. But eventually
5456-521: The Italian bankers to England. The bankers agree to her terms, so Elizabeth had the money and she eventually repaid the bankers. Spain reacted furiously, and seized English property in the Netherlands and Spain. England reacted by seizing Spanish ships and properties in England. Spain reacted by imposing an embargo preventing all English imports into the Netherlands. The bitter diplomatic standoff lasted for four years. However neither side wanted war. In 1573,
5580-779: The Liberal party was shared by Lord Hartington , who led the Liberals in the House of Commons and Lord Granville , who was Leader of the Liberals in the House of Lords . In 1875 the Eastern question came to the fore for the first time since the Crimean War . In July 1875 an insurgency against Ottoman rule broke out in Herzegovina , soon spreading over to Bosnia. Then at the end of April 1876 an insurgency had broken out in Bulgaria against Turkish rule. Military of
5704-465: The Liberals suffered a heavy defeat in the general election of 1874 . After a short transition period, Gladstone relinquished the leadership of the Liberal Party and subsequently became a mere backbencher in the British House of Commons . Subsequently he had to suffer a painful defeat when the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 was introduced as a Private Member's Bill by Archbishop of Canterbury Archibald Campbell Tait , to limit what he perceived as
5828-478: The Malta issue, refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island. The deeper British grievance was their perception that Napoleon was taking personal control of Europe, making the international system unstable, and forcing Britain to the sidelines. Historian G. M. Trevelyan argues that British diplomacy under Lord Castlereagh played a decisive role: The main issues in UK foreign policy from 1815 to 1900 were: The main function of
5952-419: The Mediterranean. In the North, Hanover played a role (it was ruled by the English king), while the alliance with Denmark provided naval access to the North Sea and the Baltic. Meanwhile, French maritime power was weakened by the Treaty of Utrecht which forced it to destroy its naval base in Dunkirk . English maritime power was boosted by a series of commercial treaties, including those of 1703 with Portugal, with
6076-450: The Netherlands, Savoy, Spain and France in 1713. Although the merchants of London had little direct say at the royal court, the king appreciated their contribution to the wealth of his kingdom, and to his tax base. Britain was a player in the first world war of modern times with theatres of fighting in Spain, Italy, Germany, Holland, and at sea. At issue was the threat of a French-sponsored Bourbon heir as king of Spain, that would allow
6200-420: The Ottoman Empire and irregular troops soon crushed the Bulgarian revolt, thereby committing brutal massacres. To block Russia from filling the vacuum, Britain had strong ties with the crumbling Ottoman Empire, long branded as Sick man of Europe . For London, it was essential to support Ottoman Empire against further Russian expansion. News of a series of atrocities by the Ottomans during their suppression of
6324-409: The Pacific, ending a two-hundred-year monopoly on Asian-Pacific trade. The outcome was a victory for mercantile interests of Britain and opened the way to British expansion in the Pacific. Pitt was alarmed at Russian expansion in Crimea in the 1780s at the expense of his Ottoman ally, and tried to get Parliamentary support for reversing it. In peace talks with the Ottomans, Russia refused to return
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#17328551262516448-479: The Palatine, and James's son-in-law begged for James's military intervention. James finally realized his policies had backfired and refused these pleas. He successfully kept Britain out of the European-wide war. James's backup plan was to marry his son Charles to a French Catholic princess, who would bring a handsome dowry. Parliament and the British people were strongly opposed to any Catholic marriage, were demanding immediate war with Spain, and strongly favored with
6572-418: The Protestant cause in Europe. Historians credit James for pulling back from a major war at the last minute, and keeping Britain in peace. The crisis in Bohemia in 1619, and the conflagration that resulted, marked the beginning of the disastrous Thirty Years' War . King James' determination to avoid involvement in the continental conflict, even during the "war fever" of 1623, appears in retrospect as one of
6696-415: The Russian Empire. Britain, with its global empire, powerful Navy, leading industrial base, and unmatched financial and trade networks, dominated diplomacy in Europe and the world in the largely peaceful century from 1814 to 1914. Sick man of Europe " Sick man of Europe " is a label given to a state located in Europe that is experiencing economic difficulties, social unrest or impoverishment. It
6820-515: The Spanish Netherlands (present-date Belgium) out of French hands. The English aristocracy was intensely anti—French, and customarily supported William's broad goals. For his entire career in Netherlands and Britain, William was the arch-enemy of Louis XIV . The Catholic King of France, in turn, denounced the Protestant William as a usurper who had illegally taken the throne from the legitimate Catholic King James II, and that he ought to be overthrown. In May 1689, William, now king of England, with
6944-402: The Spanish Succession had again emphasized the danger of an independent Scotland in alliance with France as the dagger aimed at England. Awareness of the danger had helped to determine the timing, manner and consequences of union, and Scots began to play major roles in British intellectual life, and in providing diplomats, merchants, and soldiers for the emerging British Empire. Britain played
7068-401: The Spanish king). When his Queen died in 1503, Henry VII searched the European marriage market for a diplomatic marriage with a large dowry for himself, but was unable to find a match. Arthur died in 1502 and the second son married the widow in 1509, just after he became king as Henry VIII. King Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) paid special attention to expanding the English Navy, to protect
7192-420: The Union of German Protestant Princes, headquartered in Heidelberg , the capital of the Palatine. King James calculated that his daughter's marriage would give him diplomatic leverage among the Protestants. He thus planned to have a foot in both camps and be able to broker peaceful settlements. In his naïveté, he did not realize that both sides were playing him as a tool for their own goal of achieving destroying
7316-462: The United States were quick to proclaim their adherence to the new principle of free neutral commerce. Britain—which did not—still had no wish to antagonize Russia, and avoided interfering with the allies' shipping. While both sides of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War tacitly understood it as an attempt to keep the Netherlands out of the League, Britain did not officially regard the alliance as hostile. As prime minister (1783–1801, 1804–1806) William Pitt
7440-409: The World as We Know It . In the aftermath of the Wagner Group rebellion during the Russian invasion of Ukraine (and Vladimir Putin 's perceived weakness in confronting it), political scientist Aleksandar Đokić said in 2023 that the "sick man of Europe" moniker "seem[ed] fitting for Putin’s Russia". While acknowledging the term itself to be simplistic, Đokić stated that: "The poetic justice of
7564-480: The Younger reinvigorated the administrative system of Great Britain, modernized its finances, and led the way in breaking out of the diplomatic isolation, it found itself during the American war. From 1700 to 1850, Britain was involved in 137 wars or rebellions. It maintained a large and expensive Royal Navy , along with a small standing army. When the need arose for soldiers it hired mercenaries or financed allies who fielded armies. The rising costs of warfare forced
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#17328551262517688-428: The aggression of the larger Catholic empires. On assuming the throne, James made peace with Catholic Spain, and made it his policy to marry his son to the Spanish Infanta (princess) in the " Spanish Match ". The marriage of James' daughter Princess Elizabeth to Frederick V, Elector Palatine on 14 February 1613 had important political and military implications. Across Europe, the German princes were banding together in
7812-416: The banking system used its ownership of the debt to provide capital assets for economic growth. When the wars with France began, the debt reached £359 million in 1797 and Pitt kept the sinking fund in operation and raised taxes, especially on luxury items. Britain was far ahead of France and all other powers in its use of finance to strengthen the economy, the military and foreign policy. The Nootka Crisis
7936-410: The behest of Louis. The English army, overseen by Queen Catherine, decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513, in which James IV and many senior Scottish nobles died. Charles V ascended the thrones of both Spain and the Holy Roman Empire following the deaths of his grandfathers, Ferdinand in 1516 and Maximilian in 1519. Francis I likewise became king of France upon
8060-443: The colonies that became Canada and the United States. Britain's diplomacy failed in this world-wide war—it had support of only a few small German states that hired out mercenaries. Nearly all of Europe was officially neutral, but the elites and public opinion typically favoured the underdog American Patriots . and Denmark. The League of Armed Neutrality was an alliance of minor European naval powers between 1780 and 1783 which
8184-473: The conservative " Holy Alliance " of the time, have seen Metternich's foreign policy as aligned with Nicholas, including the policy towards the Ottoman Empire. British statesman John Russell in 1853, in the run-up to the Crimean War , reported that Nicholas I of Russia described the Ottoman Empire as "a sick man—a very sick man", a "man who has fallen into a state of decrepitude", and a "sick man ... gravely ill". There has been some degree of debate about
8308-400: The continuation war, the War of the Spanish Succession , (1702–1714), was beginning. It was fought out during the reign of Queen Anne, and ended in a draw. Unlike such major rivals as France, the Netherlands, Sweden or Austria, British control over their own diplomacy was erratic. Diplomats were poorly selected, poorly funded, and non-professional. The main posts were Paris and The Hague, but
8432-483: The country's approach to economic reform, The Daily Telegraph also used the term to describe Italy, as did a CNBC op-ed in 2020. The Russian Empire in 1917 was described as the "Sick Man of Europe" in an edition of The New York Times from that year. In the 1917 article by Charles Richard Crane , the illness metaphor is used more directly, with the empire described as "Suffering From Overdose of Exaggerated Modernism in Socialist Reform Ideas", and "the danger for
8556-560: The death of Louis in 1515, leaving three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate. The careful diplomacy of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey had resulted in the Treaty of London in 1518, an early non-aggression pact among the major kingdoms of western Europe. In a significant follow-up, Henry met Francis I on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish and extremely expensive entertainment. Charles brought his Holy Roman Empire into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little
8680-403: The diplomats sent there were more clever in dealing with London politics than they were with diplomatic affairs. King William III handled foreign policy himself, using Dutch diplomats whenever possible. After 1700, Britain built up the quantity of its diplomatic service in the major capitals, without much attention to quality. Vienna and Berlin were upgraded, but even they were ignored for years at
8804-445: The dominant conservatives outraged at killing of the king, the expulsion of the nobles, and the Reign of Terror . Britain was at war against France almost continuously from 1793 until the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The goal was to stop the spread of revolutionary and democratic ideas, and to prevent France from controlling Western Europe. William Pitt the Younger was the dominant leader until his death in 1806. Pitt's strategy
8928-504: The early 2000s, and as Germany slipped into recession in 2003. In contrast, a 2016 article by The Guardian described the German economy under Angela Merkel as a "revival" from the country's previous "sick man" status. However, when Germany was experiencing economic issues again in the 2020s, concerns about the "sick man" characterisation reemerged, with Kiel Institute President Moritz Schularick saying: "If Germany does not want to become
9052-522: The economic modernization of their new home, in an era when economic innovations were transferred by people rather than through printed works. The British government ignored the complaints made by local craftsmen about the favoritism shown foreigners. The immigrants assimilated well in terms of using English, joining the Church of England, intermarriage and business success. They founded the silk industry in England. In terms of impact on British foreign policy,
9176-533: The emigration of many to England and its colonies around 1700. Some 40,000-50,000 settled in England, mostly in towns near the sea in the southern districts, with the largest concentration in London where they constituted about 5% of the total population in 1700. Many others went to the Thirteen Colonies , especially South Carolina . The immigrants included many skilled craftsmen and entrepreneurs who facilitated
9300-578: The end defeated Napoleon. Castlereagh to Canning displayed imagination and energy, although their personalities clashed to the point of fighting a duel. Britain's leaders realized the value of the increasingly powerful Royal Navy, and made sure that in various treaties it added naval bases and obtained access to key ports. In the Mediterranean region, it controlled Gibraltar and Minorca , and had advantageous positions in Naples and Palermo. The alliance with Portugal concluded in 1703 protected its approaches to
9424-578: The end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, — the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain. England resolved its long-standing problem with Scotland in the Acts of Union 1707 , which integrated Scotland into the British political and economic system. The much smaller Scotland kept its traditional political elite, its established Presbyterian church, its superior universities, and its distinctive legal system. The War of
9548-550: The ending of the newest tax known as the " Amicable Grant ." Lack of money ended Henry's plans for an invasion of France and he took England out of the war with the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525. In 1497 Henry VII commissioned the Italian mariner John Cabot who had settled in England, to explore the New World. Cabot was the first European since the Norsemen to reach parts of what
9672-477: The execution of Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587 outraged Spain. War was never formally declared. Spain was militarily and financially much more powerful, and promoted a Catholic interest in opposition to England's Protestantism. The conflict saw widely separated battles, and began with England's military expedition in 1585 to the Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) in support of the resistance of
9796-450: The expenses, and war weariness, caused second thoughts. At first, Parliament voted him the funds for his expensive wars, and for his subsidies to smaller allies. Private investors created the Bank of England in 1694; it provided a sound system that made financing wars much easier by encouraging bankers to loan money. In the long-running Nine Years' War (1688–97) his main strategy was to form
9920-423: The fall will be a great misfortune. It is very important that England and Russia should come to a perfectly good understanding ... and that neither should take any decisive step of which the other is not apprized [ sic ]. And then, closer to the attributed phrase: We have a sick man on our hands, a man gravely ill, it will be a great misfortune if one of these days he slips through our hands, especially before
10044-444: The first milestone on the road to well‐being". In May 2005, this title was again attributed to Italy, with The Economist describing it as "the real sick man of Europe". This refers to Italy's structural and political difficulties thought to inhibit economic reforms to relaunch economic growth. In 2018, Italy was again referred to as the "sick man of Europe" following post-election deadlock. In 2008, in an opinion piece criticizing
10168-509: The growing ritualism of Anglo-Catholicism and the Oxford Movement within the Church of England . The bill was supported by Queen Victoria and Gladstone's longstanding political nemesis, Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , who saw the bill purely in political terms. Gladstone, a high church Anglican whose sympathies were for separation of church and state , felt disgusted that the liturgy
10292-403: The imperialistic, orientalising and commonly overused term coming back to haunt its place of origin aside, Putin’s Russia has decidedly found itself in a military, economic, political, demographic, and even conceptual dead end." Throughout the late 1960s and 1970s, the United Kingdom was sometimes characterized as the "sick man of Europe", first by commentators, and later at home by critics of
10416-413: The industrial sector, particularly naval supplies, munitions and textiles, which gave Britain an advantage in international trade during the postwar years. Pitt in the 1780s reformed the fiscal system by raising taxes, monitoring expenses closely, and establishing a sinking fund to pay off the long-term debt, which amounted to £243 million, with annual interest accounting for most of the budget. Meanwhile,
10540-605: The issue slowly, at first appearing uninterested. By 1878 he was publishing articles in favour of ending British economic support for the Ottoman government in response. By 1880, Gladstone's dogged focus on the issue had dragged it to the forefront of public attention, and in the general election of 1880 , Gladstone toured a series of cities giving speeches of up to five hours on the subject. The nature of his orations has often been compared to that of sermons, and his fiery, emotive, but logically structured speeches are credited with swaying
10664-414: The key Ochakov fortress. Pitt wanted to threaten military retaliation. However Russia's ambassador Semyon Vorontsov swayed Pitt's enemies and launched a successful public opinion campaign. Pitt won the vote so narrowly that he gave up and Vorontsov secured a renewal of the commercial treaty between Britain and Russia. The French Revolution broke out in 1789 and polarized British political opinion, with
10788-541: The main winners, and Britain's ally Austria was a loser. The treaty left the main issues of control over territories in America and India unresolved, and was little more than an armed truce, and a prelude to the more important Seven Years' War. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763 in Europe, 1754–1763 in North America) was a major international conflict centered in Europe but reaching across the globe. Great Britain and Prussia were
10912-463: The man is sick; it is very true; but your Majesty will deign to excuse me if I remark, that it is the part of the generous and strong man to treat with gentleness the sick and feeble man. Temperley then asserts, The 'sickliness' of Turkey obsessed Nicholas during his reign. What he really said was omitted in the Blue Book from a mistaken sense of decorum. He said not the 'sick man' but the "bear dies …
11036-463: The man who later became Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , but that fell through. Henry VIII finally married her to King Louis XII of France as part of a peace treaty in 1514; Louis died after three months and Henry demanded and got most of her dowry back. The other main diplomatic success of Henry VII was an alliance with Spain, sealed by the marriage in 1501 of his heir Arthur, Prince of Wales, to Catherine of Aragon , Spain's infanta (eldest daughter of
11160-402: The manpower from its American colonies effectively in cooperation with its regulars and its Navy to overwhelm the much less populous French colonial empire in what is now Canada . From a small spark in 1754 the fighting spread to Europe. 1759, was the " annus mirabilis " ("miraculous year"), with victory after victory. British and Prussian troops defeated the French army at the Battle of Minden ,
11284-468: The most important politician within the Liberal Party. The Midlothian campaign made it impossible to ignore Gladstone's leadership claim both within the Liberal Party and for Queen Victoria . Furthermore it created a momentum that carried the Liberals to power in the 1880 election . After six years of gonverment, the Liberal government led by Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone came to an end when
11408-587: The most significant, and most positive, aspects of his reign. During 1600–1650 England made repeated efforts to colonize Guiana in South America. They all failed and the lands ( Surinam ) were ceded to the Dutch Empire in 1667. King Charles I (1600-1649) gave Lord Buckingham command of the military expedition against Spain in 1625. It was a total fiasco with many dying from disease and starvation. He led another disastrous military campaign in 1627. Buckingham
11532-543: The necessary arrangements are made. Different interpretations existed between the two countries on the "Eastern Question" by the time of the Crimean War. The British Ambassador G. H. Seymour agreed with Tsar Nicholas's diagnosis, but he very deferentially disagreed with the Tsar's recommended treatment of the patient; he responded, Your Majesty is so gracious that you will allow me to make one further observation. Your Majesty says
11656-518: The new League. An initial joint Anglo-Spanish attack was planned for the spring to recover Aquitaine for England, the start of making Henry's dreams of ruling France a reality. The attack failed and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance. Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French. On 30 June 1513, Henry invaded France, and his troops defeated
11780-469: The new king made peace a high priority and ended the long-simmering conflict in 1604. By 1600 the conflict with Spain became deadlocked during campaigns in Brittany and Ireland . James I, the new king of England, made peace with the new King of Spain, Philip III with the Treaty of London in 1604 . They agreed to cease their military interventions in the Spanish Netherlands and Ireland, respectively, and
11904-450: The other side. Lord Buckingham (1592–1628), who increasingly was the actual ruler of Britain, wanted an alliance with Spain. Buckingham took Charles with him to Spain to woo the Infanta in 1623. However, Spain's terms were that James must drop Britain's anti-Catholic intolerance . Buckingham and Charles were humiliated and Buckingham became the leader of the widespread British demand for
12028-518: The patient lay in the fact that too many quacks and ignorant specialists were contending for the right to be admitted to the bedside and administer nostrums." Post-Soviet Russia has also been referred to as such in the 2007 book Kremlin Rising: Vladimir Putin's Russia and the End of Revolution by Peter Baker and Susan Glasser , and by Mark Steyn in his 2006 book America Alone: The End of
12152-521: The peace of the world, than was the condition of Turkey when the Tsar Nicholas invited England to draw up with him the last will and testament of the 'sick man of Europe.' It is, indeed, hardly within the range of probability that another twelvemonth should pass over the House of Habsburg without bringing upon the Austrian Empire a catastrophe unmatched in modern history since the downfall of Poland . The author of this article can be seen to be using
12276-455: The public reaction to them. Paul Brighton argues that it was a highly successful media event: Gladstone's speeches covered the entire range of national policy, he gave his large audiences an advanced course in the principles of government that was both magisterial and exciting. The major speeches constitute a statement of the Liberal philosophy of government, reinforced by the fervour of his own deeply-held Anglican faith. Scotland, at this time,
12400-424: The rapidly expanding merchant fleet. He also commissioned privateers from the merchant fleets to act as auxiliary warships that captured and resold enemy merchant ships. Some of his foreign and religious policy revolved around annulling his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1533 despite the opposition of Pope Clement VII —his solution was to remove the Church of England from the pope's authority, thereby launching
12524-507: The rule of Slobodan Milošević as a candidate for the new "sick man of Europe" in 1997. This is due to political instability in Yugoslavia and its former territories caused by Yugoslav Wars that rocked the Balkan region from 1991 until 2001. In 2007, The Economist described Portugal as "a new sick man of Europe". In July 2009, the pejorative was given by EurActiv to Greece in view of
12648-735: The seas provided bastions to protect the freedom of inhabitants of the British Empire. That freedom found its institutional expression in Parliament , the law, property, and rights, all of which were exported throughout the British Atlantic world. Such freedom also allowed the British, uniquely, to combine the classically incompatible ideals of liberty and empire. Away from the high seas, Britain's commitment in India , and exaggerated fears of Russian intentions, led to involvement in Great-Game rivalry with
12772-423: The second war (1665–67) Dutch naval victories followed. This second war cost London ten times more than it had planned on, and the king sued for peace in 1667 with the Treaty of Breda . It ended the fights over "mercantilism" (that is, the use of force to protect and expand national trade, industry, and shipping.) Meanwhile, the French were building up fleets that threatened both the Netherlands and Great Britain. In
12896-425: The source of the quotation, which often relies on historical documents held or communicated personally. Historian Harold Temperley (1879–1939) gave the date for the first conversation as 9 January 1853, like Goldfrank. According to Temperley, Seymour in a private conversation had to push the Tsar to be more specific about the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, the Tsar stated, Turkey seems to be falling to pieces,
13020-451: The support of Parliament, declared war on France. Historian J.R. Jones states that King William was given: England and France were at war almost continuously until 1713, with a short interlude 1697–1701 made possible by the Treaty of Ryswick . The combined English and Dutch fleets could overpower France in a far-flung naval war, but France still had superiority on land. William wanted to neutralize that advantage by allying with Leopold I ,
13144-621: The term to point to a second "sick man" of Europe, the Habsburg monarchy . Later, this view led the Allies in World War I to underestimate the Ottoman Empire, leading in part to the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign . However, the "sick man" eventually collapsed after defeat in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I . After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, writers have described many countries as
13268-486: The third war (1672–74), the British counted on a new alliance with France but the outnumbered Dutch outsailed both of them, and King Charles II ran short of money and political support. The Dutch gained domination of sea trading routes until 1713. The British gained the thriving colony of New Netherland , and renamed it New York. The primary reason the English Parliament called on William to invade England in 1688
13392-414: The threatened rebellions by the newly defeated House of York . Foreign affairs apart from Scotland were not a high priority. Scotland was an independent country, and peace was agreed to in 1497. Much of his diplomacy involved treaties for marriages with ruling houses in Europe. He married his eldest daughter Margaret Tudor to King James IV of Scotland in 1503. Henry tried to marry his daughter Mary to
13516-710: The uneasy truce created by the Treaty of Amiens when it declared war on the First French Empire in May 1803. The British were increasingly angered by Napoleon's reordering of the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets, and was worried by Napoleon's possible threat to its overseas colonies. Frank McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of
13640-467: The unity of mankind. History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom Britain from 1750 to the 1910s took pride in an unmatched economic base; comprising industry, finance, shipping and trade that largely dominated the globe. Foreign policy based on free trade (from the 1840 to 1920s) kept the economy flourishing. The overseas First British Empire was devastated by the loss of
13764-431: The winners over France, Austria, Spain and Russia. Britain swept up much of the overseas French Empire in North America and India. The financing of war was a critical issue, which Britain handled well, and France handled poorly, leaving itself so deep in debt that it never fully recovered. William Pitt energized the British leadership, and used effective diplomacy and military strategy to achieve his victory. Britain used
13888-656: Was a crisis with Spain starting in 1789 at Nootka Sound , an unsettled area at the time that is now part of British Columbia . Spain seized British ships engaged in the fur trade in an area on the Pacific Ocean in a zone where Spain claimed ownership. Britain rejected the Spanish claims and used its greatly superior naval power to threaten a war and win the dispute. The dispute was settled by negotiations in 1792–94, which became friendly when Spain switched sides in 1792 and became an ally of Britain against France. Spain surrendered to Britain many of its trade and territorial claims in
14012-416: Was a nation fixated on the promotion of this sort of religious and moral rectitude and probity. His focus was usually on foreign affairs. Gladstone presented his commitment to a world community, governed by law, protecting the weak. His vision of the ideal world order combined universalism and inclusiveness; he appealed to group feeling, the sense of concern for others, rising eventually to the larger picture of
14136-504: Was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles. He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France, but also sought to secure an alliance with Burgundy , then part of Charles' realm, and the continued support of Charles. Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia and could dictate peace; but he believed he owed Henry nothing. Henry had repeatedly raised taxes to pay for his foreign operations until upscale passive resistance in 1525 forced
14260-469: Was hated and the damage to the king's reputation was irreparable. England rejoiced when he was assassinated in 1628 by John Felton . As a major Protestant nation, England patronized and help protect Huguenots, starting with Queen Elizabeth in 1562. There was a small naval Anglo-French War (1627–1629) , in which England supported the French Huguenots against King Louis XIII of France. London financed
14384-525: Was intended to protect neutral shipping against the Royal Navy's wartime policy of unlimited search of neutral shipping for French contraband . By the end of the war in 1783 Prussia , the Holy Roman Empire , the Netherlands, Portugal, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Ottoman Empire had all become members. The League never fought a battle. Diplomatically, it carried greater weight; France and
14508-469: Was kept secure by reliance on the Royal Navy . It remained the most powerful fleet afloat with a vast network of bases across the globe. London ensured it was larger than the next two largest navies combined. In 1500 the Kingdom of England had only a modest population (3.8 million) compared to its much larger rivals of France (15 million), Spain (6.5 million), and the Holy Roman Empire (17 million). It
14632-573: Was made, as he saw it, "a parliamentary football" and introduced six resolutions when the bill came to the House of Commons. But on this he found himself out of step with his own party and had to back down when Disraeli put the weight of the government behind the bill. When the bill was passed, he retreated to his country mansion Hawarden Castle . In January 1875 he made good of his promise given years earlier and withdrew himself altogether from politics. Instead he spent his time at Hawarden with his studies of Homer . After his self-imposed exile, leadership of
14756-463: Was of Scottish ancestry) successfully stood in the 1880 election. Gladstone charged the Conservative government of his longstanding political enemy Benjamin Disraeli with financial incompetence, neglect of domestic legislation, and mismanagement of foreign affairs. He was able to enhance his reputation as a popular and down-to-earth politican ("The People's William") and cemented his pre-eminence as
14880-517: Was reaffirmed in January 2014 by European newspapers such as The Guardian and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . They justified this with France's high unemployment, weak economic growth and poor industrial output. In the late 1990s, Germany was often labeled with this term because of its economic problems, especially due to the costs of German reunification after 1990, which were estimated to amount to over €1.5 trillion (statement of Freie Universität Berlin ). It continued to be used in
15004-488: Was saddled with the largely incompetent Foreign Secretary, Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds , from 1783 to 1791. However Pitt managed to bring in numerous strong diplomats, such as James Harris at The Hague, where he forged an alliance that with the addition of Prussia became a triple alliance in 1788. Pitt often used him as a troubleshooter in complex negotiations. Pitt brought in William Eden (1744–1814), who negotiated
15128-524: Was three times larger than its naval rival, the Netherlands , and eight times larger than Scotland . The limited budget, limited ambitions on the continent, avoidance of alliances, and the protection afforded by the English Channel from foreign invasion combined to make foreign affairs less pressing for the British government before 1688. Elite elements paid little attention to Continental affairs before
15252-577: Was to mobilize and fund the coalition against France. It seemed too hard to attack France on the continent so Pitt decided to seize France's valuable colonies in the West Indies and India. At home, a minority pro-French element carried little weight with the British government. Conservatives castigated every radical opinion as "Jacobin" (in reference to the leaders of the Terror ), warning that radicalism threatened an upheaval of British society. Britain ended
15376-435: Was to overthrow King James II , and stop his efforts to reestablish Catholicism and tolerate Puritanism. However the primary reason William accepted the challenge was to gain a powerful ally in his war to contain the threatened expansion of King Louis XIV of France . William's goal was to build coalitions against the powerful French monarchy, protect the autonomy of the Netherlands (where William continued in power) and to keep
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