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69-1034: Merriam can refer to: People [ edit ] Alan P. Merriam (1923–1980), American ethnomusicologist Charles Edward Merriam (1874–1953), American political scientist Charles W. Merriam (1877–1961), American insurance businessman and politician Clinton Hart Merriam (1855–1942), American zoologist and anthropologist Clinton Levi Merriam (1824–1900), United States Representative from New York Eve Merriam (1916–1992), American poet Frank Merriam (1865–1955), American politician and 28th governor of California Gordon Phelps Merriam (1899–1999), American soldier and diplomat Henry Clay Merriam , American general John Campbell Merriam (1869–1945), American paleontologist William Rush Merriam (1849–1934), American politician and 11th governor of Minnesota George Merriam (1803–1880) and his brother Charles, founders of G. and C. Merriam, later Merriam-Webster Sarah A. L. Merriam (1971–), American lawyer and judge on

138-554: A catastrophic failure of numerous systems of the aircraft. The sudden loss of control of the flight control surfaces caused a steep, unrecoverable dive, and resulted in a crash, 26 seconds from the time of the original failure. A press article, released in Poland in 2010 and based on the review of archival documentation kept in IPN claimed that the People's Republic of Poland authorities contributed to

207-491: A contingent of the U.S. amateur boxing team (who were scheduled for a series of exhibition fights in Europe instead of the boycotted Summer Olympics .) According to the doctors who arrived at the scene, many of the passengers were apparently asleep when the plane hit the ground, but some of them – including many of the boxers – were supposedly aware that they were about to crash, as they held to their seats so strongly that on impact,

276-467: A fluid construct and that methods of understanding it can be applied to understanding music. Merriam's idea of how ethnomusicology should be defined drew from his idea of what an ethnomusicologist should accomplish. Merriam had, like all ethnomusicologists, completed fieldwork in his area of interest, but he was characterized by his peers in ethnomusicology as being more scientific and focusing on drawing conclusion from data. In his own writings, he emphasizes

345-463: A fourth beyond the interval. The investigation revealed the practice to be widespread. The airline called the fourth engines "leaders". Initially, Mikołaj Kopernik' s engine 2 was installed on the aircraft SP-LAC Fryderyk Chopin , but after 1,700 hours of flying in 1975, the engine was removed due to damage of the low-pressure compressor's blade and sent for repair to the Soviet Union. After repair,

414-433: A fraction of a second, the centrifugal force caused the turbine to disintegrate. The enclosure of the turbine failed to contain the pieces of the turbine, which were ejected tangentially at high speed, causing severe damage to the tail section of the aircraft. The Polish government's Special Disaster Commission sent its findings on the cause of the accident to Moscow. In response, Russian engineers and scientists stated that

483-403: A heavy snowstorm. It finally departed at 21:18, and after nine hours of an uneventful flight, it was approaching Okęcie Airport at 11:13 local time. During their final approach , about one minute before the landing, the crew reported to Okęcie Air Traffic Control that the landing gear indicator light was not operating, and that they would go around and allow the flight engineer to check if it

552-646: A highly musical household in Missoula, Montana, Merriam began studying piano and clarinet at a young age. His father was the Chairman of the English department at Montana State University, and his mother was a highly skilled cellist. During his younger years, Merriam performed in numerous school bands and local dance orchestras. Merriam studied music at Montana State University ('47) and began graduate work in anthropology at Northwestern University ('48) where he became acquainted with

621-527: A joint Polish-Soviet governmental trip to Beijing; after that, the engines were taken back to the Soviet Union. The Polish commission report also called for some modernizations in the Il-62 design, most notably doubling the flight controls, so that if one system failed the plane would still be controllable. At the time, redundant controls of this kind were in general use in American and European-made airliners. This issue

690-421: A large part of the main hull submerged in the moat, while the tail and parts of the main landing gear landed a few meters further, just before the entrance to the fort. On the scene, a diving team was later trying to recover parts of the aircraft (including some of the engines) from the moat, but it was far too murky; ultimately, the moat had to be drained to allow the air crash investigation team to recover parts of

759-556: A letter to the Ilyushin Design Bureau containing the results of a test in which it was found that the engines could operate normally 8600 hours without maintenance. From the design bureau office came the answer that the Poles could fly as much as they want, but the manufacturer was responsible only for 5000 flight hours. Increased stress on the engines and lengthening of the service interval led to growth failure. There were cases when

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828-402: A more general fascination with the use of music as a form of communication among humans, and the study of music in the various ways people use it to communicate will enable a better understanding of human communication in general. Merriam's own take on this perception is stated as "The problem of understanding has not always been well understood…the study of music as a means of communication, then,

897-414: A more general idea set with which the field of ethnomusicology is concerned with. In his own words, he defines it simply as "the study of music in culture" (cite Merriam's 1960 work here). This definition embodies the purpose of the entirety of The Anthropology of Music , being that ethnomusicology is not weighed further in favor of the ethnological or musicological, but instead an inseparable amalgamation of

966-549: A number of other important ethnomusicology authors, such as Jaap Kunst, who defined ethnomusicology via the types of music studied in the field, "The study-object of ethnomusicology, or, as it originally was called: comparative musicology, is the traditional music and musical instruments of all cultural strata of mankind, from the so-called primitive peoples to the civilized nations. Our science, therefore, investigates all tribal and folk music and every kind of non-Western art music." Merriam's own definition of ethnomusicology concerns

1035-411: A shift away from the adverbial usage of the phrase "comparative musicology." Due to its nature as a field at the intersection of several disciplines, ethnomusicology takes on many forms and is viewed through many lenses, highly dependent on the goals and background of the ethnomusicologist. With training as an anthropologist, Merriam was a member of the anthropology school of ethnomusicology. Along with

1104-470: A speed of approximately 380 km/h (210 kn; 240 mph) at a 20-degree down angle, 950 m (3,120 ft) away from the runway threshold and 100 m (330 ft) from a residential area. At the last moment Captain Lipowczan, using nothing but the plane's ailerons , managed to avoid hitting a correctional facility for teenagers located at Rozwojowa Street. On impact, the aircraft disintegrated;

1173-439: Is at the moment from the field of cultural anthropology that our primary stimulation is coming for the study of music as a universal aspect of man's activities." to further his argument that ethnomusicology must continue its transition into the study of broader issues by removing focus from the study of musical objects. He continued his efforts to arrive at a more accurate definition of ethnomusicology by later suggesting that music

1242-409: Is characterized by a drive to solve relevant problems using data gathered in the field hands-on. An individual that stood as a foil to him was his fellow ethnomusicologist, Mantle Hood. A member of the musicology school of ethnomusicology, Hood was known for initiating an important ethnomusicology graduate program at UCLA. This graduate program was centered on bimusicality or "international musicianship,"

1311-466: Is far more complex than it might appear, for we do not know what precisely music communicates, or how it communicates it." LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 was an Ilyushin Il-62 that crashed near Okęcie Airport in Warsaw , Poland , on 14 March 1980, as the crew aborted a landing and attempted to go-around , killing all 77 passengers and 10 crew members on board. It

1380-638: Is most known for. These two ethnomusicologists in practice emphasized different things in what they believed ethnomusicology should accomplish. Hood was more interested in creating a graduate student body that could accomplish the egalitarian purpose of ethnomusicology in spreading world musics and preserving them. In contrast, Merriam's priorities lay in proposing a theoretical framework (as he does in The Anthropology of Music) for studying musical data and using that analysis for application towards solving musical problems. Merriam's contribution to ethnomusicology

1449-462: Is not. Moving towards a clearer definition of ethnomusicology, Merriam writes that ethnomusicology "makes its unique contribution in welding together aspects of the social sciences and aspects of the humanities in such a way that each complements the other and leads to a fuller understanding of both. Neither should be considered as an end in itself; the two must be joined into a wider understanding." This definition of ethnomusicology comes in response to

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1518-573: The IL-62 flew from the United States to Warsaw without passengers, on three engines. Representatives of the technical staff at the John F. Kennedy Airport reported two similar flights in the past two years. The most common causes of failure were bending or breaking of the blades. Consequently, there were not enough serviceable engines. LOT fell into the practice of using three engines within the service interval, and

1587-493: The Merriam model. The purpose of this book is to create a better understanding of the anthropological aspects of music, defining ethnomusicology as not the study of the music of non-western cultures, but instead as the study of the relationship which music bears to society. Merriam claims the goals of ethnomusicology cannot be realized by considering music to be an object separate from the humans which make it, and therefore argues for

1656-478: The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit Other uses [ edit ] Merriam-Webster , a publishing company specializing in reference books Merriam's pocket mouse ( Perognathus merriami ) Merriam's wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo merriami ) See also [ edit ] Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

1725-400: The United States usually landed on runway course 150 (150 degrees, south-south-east), and if they landed at or before noon on a sunny day (such as on 14 March 1980), the sun was shining almost directly in their eyes, which were weary after several hours of night flight and constant monitoring of cockpit instruments; this sometimes caused disorientation and confusion if an indicator light actually

1794-523: The anthropologist Melville J. Herskovits, who "stimulated his interest in the study of music as a cultural phenomenon." Merriam went on to complete a doctorate in anthropology, his dissertation titled "Songs of the Afro-Bahian Cults: An Ethnomusicological Analysis." This dissertation was significant to the field of Ethnomusicology, because it was the first instance of the word "ethnomusicology" being used as an adverb, marking

1863-425: The application of data gathered in the field to solving relevant musical problems and how such application is motivated by the approach and goal of the researcher. Further, he claims the indispensable link between the data gathered in the field and the conclusions drawn from it by proposing his opinion on "armchair ethnomusicologists": "The day of the "armchair ethnomusicologist" who sits in the laboratory and analyzes

1932-501: The crash by demanding savings from LOT and excessive exploitation of engines. As a result of the economic policy of Edward Gierek in People's Republic of Poland in the second half of the 1970s it began raising prices, which started to drag the country into an economic crisis. In such circumstances, the Ministry of Transport required LOT to reduce costs. One of the first measures to reduce costs

2001-410: The crash. While recovering the engines, the number-two (inner left) engine was found to be cut in half, held together only by the fuel lines. When the engine was further examined, the disc of the low-pressure turbine was found to be missing; despite an extensive search, it was not found at the crash site. Finally, the turbine disc was found about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi; 2.2 nmi) from the site; it

2070-499: The defect was already marked there (noted), and the plane was subsequently allowed to fly. As he later explained to investigators, the mechanic decided that the defect was within tolerance. Engine No.3 had 8200 hours operating time without repair. The aircraft was allowed to fly to New York with three engines and only the No.4 engine was fully serviceable. The Kuznetsov NK-8 is a two-spool turbofan engine with two low pressure turbines driving

2139-408: The defective engine was fitted to the aircraft, it being argued that the vibration level was "below acceptable standards." Before the flight to New York the aircraft was checked by mechanic Zdzisław Jarmoniak, who found that the No.1 engine had a defect in one of the turbine blades. This deformation was located in the lowest (and widest) part of the blade. The mechanic wanted to report it, but found that

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2208-515: The defects in Mikołaj Kopernik' s shaft became large enough, and the shaft broke, resulting in the physical separation of the low-pressure turbine from the low-pressure compressor. As a result, the low-pressure turbine explosively disintegrated. Ejected with enormous force, pieces of the turbines damaged two further engines and cut through the hull. This caused the failure of the vertical and horizontal flight controls ( rudder and elevator ), and

2277-402: The design of its turbine. During the manufacturing of the low-pressure shaft, at a location where its section diameter increases, a sharp, 90-degree step was made, resulting in a sudden diameter change over a very short linear length - a classic condition for stress concentration , which results in fatigue cracking at that location. Additionally, the metallurgical analysis found that the shaft

2346-538: The disintegrated plane. The body of Captain Lipowczan was found lying on the street about 60 m (200 ft) from the crash site; other bodies were scattered between the plane parts. The majority of the victims were found to be bisected due to seat belts being fastened at the time of impact. Among the 87 fatalities were Polish singer Anna Jantar , American ethnomusicologist Alan P. Merriam , six Polish students returning home from an AIESEC conference in New York, and

2415-432: The engine number 1, damaging it seriously; finally, the third piece of the disc shot into the hull, severed the rudder and elevator control rods and destroyed the number 3 engine, causing loss of control over the plane; it also severed power cables for both the flight data recorder and the cockpit voice recorder . This caused the last moments of Mikołaj Kopernik not to be recorded. The cut control rods also explained

2484-411: The engine was placed on SP-LAB Tadeusz Kościuszko . After 5000 hours of flight, vibration was detected above the acceptable level and felt noticeably in the back of the aircraft. Therefore, in 1978 the engine was again removed for repair in Poland and subsequently installed on SP-LAA Mikołaj Kopernik . After repair, the engine accumulated 700 flight hours before the accident. In spite of the vibrations,

2553-524: The engines were under greater load. Warranty service life of NK-8-4 engines was 5,000 hours (3000 to 5000 hours is typical for such engines ), but about half of LOT engines failed after 2000–3000 hours. Because of this, Polish pilots often called the Il-62 "flying coffins". In spite of the low reliability, the airline decided to increase overhaul life intervals to reduce the frequency of repairs, which were carried out in Soviet factories and quite expensive. LOT sent

2622-404: The fan and low pressure compressor and one high pressure turbine driving the higher stages of the compressor. As the No. 2 engine's low-pressure shaft failed, the low-pressure turbine suddenly separated from the low-pressure compressor, freeing itself. Because the engine combustion chamber was still producing power, the suddenly freed turbine spun out of control with such enormous speed that within

2691-438: The flight or for other reasons, which prevented their participation in the scheduled event, so they stayed in the United States. The police quickly surrounded the site and removed any spectators; recovery of airplane pieces started soon afterwards. Both the cockpit voice recorder and flight data recorder were found quickly; unfortunately, the recording suddenly stopped nine seconds after the last transmission, 26 seconds before

2760-407: The impurities came from the nacelle, the hull, control actuators and finally, electrical cables. Also, detailed examination of the surface of the broken disc showed significant evidence of fatigue cracking. Finally, when the control pushers were found to be cut in half, it was proven that the cut was not caused by the crash, and some traces of the metal alloy the turbine disc was made of were found on

2829-452: The muscles and tendons in their arms became severed. Some reports suggested that some of the boxers actually survived the crash and drowned in the moat, but no evidence for this was presented. A total of 22 U.S. boxers, trainers, and doctors died in the accident (including the 1979 Pan American Games winner light welterweight Lemuel Steeples ). A number of Olympic team members were not present due to various pugilistic injuries sustained before

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2898-498: The music of other cultures. Many ethnomusicologists, Merriam asserts, are under the impression that the music of many non-western cultures are either abused or neglected, and that they are worthy of appreciation in western society the same way western music is appreciated. Merriam's second listed goal of ethnomusicology is the preservation of the music of these cultures, a transformative phenomenon Merriam describes as "a constant factor in human experience." The third perceived goal concerns

2967-424: The music that others have recorded…is fast passing in our discipline. I do not deny the contribution of such a specialist in the past, nor in the future, but his role is becoming progressively smaller, and rightly so, for method and theory are inseparable in the gathering of data, and the descriptive phase of our study in which we treat simply structural facts is giving way before the broader interpretations." Merriam

3036-448: The musicology school, these two factions of ethnomusicology make up a large population in the world of ethnomusicology and they are often at odds. His heavy association with the anthropology school of ethnomusicology had resulted in his views on the various issues plaguing ethnomusicology to considered representative of the attitudes and views of the anthropology school. Issues that Merriam has weighed on in heavily in his opinion pieces are

3105-457: The practice in graduate ethnomusicology where students should make the effort to become proficient in musical traditions outside of their own. His program emphasized learning to listen and hear without prejudice or ethnocentricity, rhythmic and tonal fluency outside of the Western tradition, and performance experience in non-Western vocal and instrumental performance with the last being what his program

3174-451: The reasons given were implausible and that the turbine disintegrated because of engine failure, contrary to what was stated in the Polish report. Many years later it was revealed that after Flight 7's crash, all Il-62s used by Soviet officials and VIPs had their engines discreetly replaced with newer ones. At one occasion, a Polish governmental Il-62M had had specially installed newer engines for

3243-400: The sake of an anthropology of music. Studying just the music as an object, Merriam argues, is counterintuitive to the goals of ethnomusicology, excluding a very important aspect of ethnomusicology, which is music's intrinsic ties to the ways humans act. Articulating this relationship, Merriam states, "Music sound cannot be produced except by people for other people, and although we can separate

3312-470: The security off and tried to control the vertical trim, but it was too late. In an interview for Polish TV series The Black Series , Captain Tomasz Smolicz, an experienced airline pilot who flew thousands of hours on transatlantic routes on Ilyushins Il-62 and Il-62M in the 1970s and 1980s (he flew Mikołaj Kopernik from Warsaw to New York on 13 March 1980), stated that the planes returning to Warsaw from

3381-509: The study of ethnomusicology , centering on the study of "music in culture." This model suggested that music should be studied on three analytic levels: conceptualization about music; behavior in relation to music; and analysis of music's sounds. In later works, Merriam amended his original concept of "music in culture" to "music as culture." Merriam died in the LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 crash on March 14, 1980. Born to

3450-486: The sudden dive. When they were cut, the horizontal stabilizer, under its own weight, dropped down, causing the nose also to go down. This could be counteracted by the vertical trim ; in Il-62s, the switch setting the vertical trim to manual operation was secured by a thin, sharp wire. On Captain Lipowczan's right hand, small wounds were found, and they were confirmed to be made while Lipowczan was still alive; supposedly, he ripped

3519-407: The surface of the cut, the sequence of events became clear. The disaster started when Mikołaj Kopernik was instructed to climb to a higher flight level. When the necessary thrust was applied to all four engines, the low-pressure turbine of the number 2 engine disintegrated after 9 seconds. One piece of the turbine disc got ejected upwards, not causing any significant damage; the second piece shot into

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3588-525: The title Merriam . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merriam&oldid=1242899334 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Alan P. Merriam Merriam's initial work

3657-506: The two aspects conceptually, one is not really complete without the other. Human behavior produces music, but the process is one of continuity; the behavior itself is shaped to produce music sound, and thus the study of one flows into the other". Ethnomusicology, Merriam posits, "has most often been made in terms of what [musicology] encompasses," being that the realms of musicology and ethnomusicology are exclusive to one another, and ethnomusicology has simply been relayed as being what musicology

3726-458: The two. Another aspect of ethnomusicology which Merriam sought to make clear in The Anthropology of Music is the overarching goal of the field of ethnomusicology. Merriam claims, "There is no denial of the basic aim, which is to understand music; but neither is there an acceptance of a point of view which has long taken ascendancy in ethnomusicology, that the ultimate aim of our discipline is

3795-410: The understanding of music sound alone." This harkens back to the difficulties in ethnomusicology's past priorities, which were simply the understanding of sound as an object in and of itself, and almost no emphasis was placed on the relationship music had with the cultures it existed in. Merriam divides his stated goals of ethnomusicology into three different approaches, the first being the appreciation of

3864-470: The way the field had been and should be defined and the directions it was taking during his lifetime. On defining ethnomusicology, Merriam draws on his background as an anthropologist to surmise that as a field ethnomusicology should aim to study "music in culture." Merriam emphasizes that "In other words I believe that music can be studied not only from the standpoint of musicians and humanists, but from that of social scientists as well, and that, further, it

3933-569: Was based on fieldwork carried out in his native Montana and central Africa. He undertook extensive field research among the Flathead Indians of Montana in 1950 (for his PhD) and again in 1958. In Africa, he studied with the Songye and Bashi people of Zaïre (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) and Burundi in the 1950s and again in 1973. Later, Merriam proposed a tripartite model for

4002-511: Was broken into three similar-sized pieces. After recovering the cockpit, the throttles of both engines 2 and 3 (inner right) were found to be shut off, while on engine 4 (outer right) the thrust was set to maximum. The investigating commission asked the Soviets if an Il-62 was able to reach the runway with one engine operating; no conclusive answer was received, but calculations based on the official technical data suggested that, while one engine thrust

4071-411: Was caused by a burnt-out fuse or light bulb, or if there was actually some problem with the gears deploying. This was the last transmission from Mikołaj Kopernik . Nine seconds later, the aircraft suddenly entered a steep dive. At 11:14:35, after 26 seconds of uncontrolled descent, the aircraft clipped a tree with its right wing and impacted the ice-covered moat of a 19th-century military fortress at

4140-455: Was caused by the disintegration of one of the turbine discs in one of the plane's engines, leading to uncontained engine failure. The turbine disc was later found to have manufacturing faults. LOT initiated their transatlantic routes in the early 1970s, for which it decided to purchase Ilyushin Il-62s . The aircraft which crashed was the first Il-62 that LOT had purchased for this purpose, manufactured in 1971. As with all Ilyushins purchased, it

4209-477: Was felt past his death but especially in the works of Tim Rice of UCLA in the 1980s as he himself was trying to propose a more composed and exact model for conducting work in ethnomusicology. He deconstructed Merriam's method as stated in The Anthropology of Music and described it as consisting of three analytical levels. This simplified model was used by Rice as a foil to the method he was proposing, consistently referencing how his model furthered things accomplished by

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4278-429: Was incorrectly heat-treated during manufacture and contained contaminant particles such as non-metallic inclusions, which further reduced the shaft's ability to carry the torsional loads as designed. The improper machining and impurities facilitated an accelerated fatigue fracture of this key engine component via unmitigated formation of micro-cracks through the shaft's core, ultimately leading to its failure. Over time,

4347-420: Was insufficient for the aircraft to maintain altitude, it was enough to reach the runway and try to land. No explanation was found why the aircraft with one engine operating at maximum power suddenly entered a steep dive. Detailed analysis of the pieces of the turbine disc found several metallic impurities on the edges of two of them; in one case, they were identified as coming from the engine nacelle, in another,

4416-506: Was lit or not; so, on that day, the landing gear indicator could have actually been lit, but the crew members might have managed to see it incorrectly. During the recovery, the landing gear was found to be properly extended and locked. According to the Polish government's Special Disaster Commission, the crash was caused by defects in materials, faults in the manufacturing process of the Kuznetsov NK-8 jet engine 's shaft, and weaknesses in

4485-634: Was named after a famous Polish historical figure, in this case astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus ( Polish : Mikołaj Kopernik ). All of the crew members of Flight 007 were Polish. The captain , Paweł Lipowczan, was 46 years old, with 8,770 flight hours' experience (4,385 of them on Ilyushin Il-62s). The first officer was Tadeusz Łochocki. The remaining flight crew were flight engineer Jan Łubniewski, flight navigator Konstanty Chorzewski and radio operator Stefan Wąsiewicz. There were five flight attendants on board. Future World Heavyweight Champion Tony Tucker

4554-812: Was never addressed by the Soviets; none of their Ilyushins of any type had installed alternate controls. A small statue dedicated to the boxers who perished in the accident – a trigonal prism made of bronze, with a knocked-down boxer statue at the top—is located at the grounds of Warsaw sport club Skra Warszawa . An identical statue is located at the United States Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs . The statues were funded by Thomas Kane of Printon Kane and Company and AIBA and designed by American sculptor Auldwin Thomas Schonberg. The graves of Mikołaj Kopernik' s crew are located at

4623-405: Was supposed to be on this flight but could not go because of a shoulder injury. All 87 people on board were killed, including 22 members of the U.S. boxing team. On its final flight, the aircraft was piloted by Captain Lipowczan and First Officer Łochocki. Flight 007 was scheduled to depart from Kennedy International Airport at about 19:00 local time on 13 March 1980, but it was delayed because of

4692-412: Was the study of "music as culture." The distinction between these two approaches to define ethnomusicology lie in how culture is treated relative to the study of music. The approach of studying "music in culture" assumes that culture is a complex quality inherent to any society and music exists as a component of that quality. Treating "music as culture" conceives culture not as an object with comments but as

4761-421: Was to minimize refueling planes in foreign airports due to higher jet fuel prices. Aircraft were fueled in Poland to the maximum possible take-off weight. As a result, the crew used the full length of the runway. Conversely, they had a relatively small amount of fuel in reserve on the return flight, which sometimes forced them to land in bad weather. Flights with a maximal take off weight increased engine wear, since

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