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94-459: The refuge plays host to the largest wintering populations of lesser sandhill cranes and Ross's geese within the Pacific Flyway . Each autumn over 20,000 cranes and 60,000 arctic nesting geese terminate their annual migrations from Alaska and Canada to make the refuge home for six months. Here they mingle with thousands of other visiting waterfowl, waterbirds and shorebirds making the refuge

188-586: A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010 found that the genus, as then defined, was polyphyletic . In the resulting rearrangement to create monophyletic genera, four species, including the sandhill crane, were placed in the resurrected genus Antigone that had originally been erected by the German naturalist Ludwig Reichenbach in 1853. The specific epithet canadensis is the modern Latin word for "from Canada". Five subspecies are recognised: Adults are gray overall; during breeding, their plumage

282-742: A Spanish scout and explorer in the Southwest , was a war captain of the Spanish Indian auxiliaries. By 1714 (the same year the French explorers reached the Platte), he and a small exploration group from the south had reportedly already reached the Platte three times. He later guided the 1720 Villasur expedition to the area in a Spanish effort to stop French expansion onto the Great Plains. Naranjo and Villasur's party made

376-516: A U.S. Army officer on leave, led an expedition to the west financed by John Jacob Astor . They took wagons along the Platte, North Platte and Sweetwater River trail to the Green River in present-day Wyoming. The notable author Washington Irving wrote an account of Bonneville's explorations in the west that made him well known in the US. Following the fur traders, the major emigration trails established along

470-404: A breeding pair build the nest using plant material from the surrounding area. Nest sites are usually marshes, bogs, or swales, though occasionally on dry land. Females lay one to three (usually two) oval, dull brown eggs with reddish markings. Both parents incubate the eggs for about 30 days. The chicks are precocial; they hatch covered in down, with their eyes open, and able to leave the nest within

564-550: A canoe to travel far. The Platte River valley provided an easily passable wagon corridor; it sloped gradually up in height as it went almost due west from the Missouri. The Platte route had access to water, grass, buffalo and buffalo 'chips,' which the Indians and emigrants used as fuel for fires. Long Native American use had created trails on both sides of the muddy, about 1 mile (1.6 km) wide and shallow Platte River. The Platte's water

658-405: A day. The parents brood the chicks for up to three weeks after hatching, feeding them intensively for the first few weeks, then gradually less frequently until they reach independence at 9 to 10 months old. The chicks remain with their parents until one to two months before the parents lay the next clutch of eggs the following year, remaining with them for 10–12 months. After leaving their parents,

752-415: A food source for wintering and migrating birds as they prepare for the long flight north to their breeding grounds. As spring arrives and the water in the vernal pools evaporates, wildflowers – such as goldfields , purple owl's clover , and butter-and-eggs – germinate in colorful patterns of thick rings or halos around the pool basins. Once the vernal pools have dried out, Downingia and Colusa grass ,

846-535: A humanoid creature reportedly seen in the Point Pleasant , West Virginia area from November 1966 to December 1967 is thought to have originated from sightings of out-of-migration sandhill cranes. In 2023 the "Mississippi sandhill crane" was featured on a United States Postal Service Forever stamp as part of the Endangered Species set, based on a photograph from Joel Sartore 's Photo Ark . The stamp

940-879: A number of Nebraska stakeholders embarked upon the Platte River Cooperative Hydrology Study (COHYST). Conducted with assistance from the United States Geological Survey and the Natural Resources Conservation Service , this study attempts to arrive at a better understanding of the geology and hydrology of the Platte River basin from the Colorado and Wyoming borders to Columbus, including the Loup basin. This improved understanding could be used to develop policies for management of

1034-449: A prehistoric relative, or it may comprise material of a sandhill crane and its ancestor. Sandhill cranes vary considerably in size (much of which is clinal ) and in migratory habits. A female of A. c. canadensis averages 3.46 kg (7.6 lb), 94 cm (37 in) in length, and has a wingspan of 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in). A male of A. c. tabida averages 5 kg (11 lb), 119 cm (47 in) in length, and has

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1128-405: A previously adopted closure of part of such river basin, subbasin, or reach to the issuance of additional water well permits, or to temporarily suspend or continue in effect a temporary suspension previously adopted on the drilling of new water wells in all or part of such river basin, subbasin, or reach. Most of the Platte River basin is currently considered as overappropriated. Beginning in 2004,

1222-458: A range in the southern U.S. and maybe northern Mexico, where they were resident. The southern migratory population would then represent a later re-expansion, which (re-) evolved their migratory habits independent from the northernmost birds, the geographically separated populations expanding rapidly when more habitat was available as the last ice age ended. Sandhill cranes are fairly social birds that usually live in pairs or family groups through

1316-595: A rare California species, appear in the parched basins. This annual coloring led John Muir to describe the valley floor as the "floweriest part of the world" he had seen. In addition to managing natural habitats, the Merced National Wildlife Refuge contains approximately 300 acres (1.2 km) of cultivated corn and winter wheat crops and over 500 acres (2.0 km) of irrigated pasture for wildlife. Not only do these managed agricultural areas provide important sources of nutrition ( carbohydrates ) to

1410-406: A river basin, subbasin, or reach shall be deemed overappropriated if it is subject to an interstate cooperative agreement among more states and if, prior to such date, the state has declared a moratorium on the issuance of new surface water appropriations in such river, subbasin, or reach, and has requested each natural resources district jurisdiction in the affected area to close or continue in effect

1504-412: A species, the three southernmost subspecies are quite rare. Resident populations, not migratory birds, cannot choose secure breeding habitat. Many subpopulations were destroyed by hunting or habitat change. The greater sandhill crane proper initially suffered most; by 1940, probably fewer than 1,000 birds remained. Populations have since increased greatly again. At nearly 100,000, they are still fewer than

1598-600: A stoop. In New Mexico, humans hunt them with a permit granted in a lottery draw during late fall. There are a total of 17 states that allow hunting of Sandhill Cranes. Sandhill cranes defend themselves and their young from aerial predators by jumping and kicking. Actively brooding adults are more likely to react aggressively to potential predators to defend their chicks than wintering birds, which most often normally try to evade attacks on foot or in flight. For land predators such as dogs, foxes, and coyotes, they move forward, often hissing, with their wings open and bills pointed. If

1692-568: A transliteration of the name given by the Otoe people, meaning "flat water". This expression is very close to the French words "rivière platte" ("flat river"), the probable origin of the name Platte River. The Platte River is formed in western Nebraska east of the city of North Platte, Nebraska by the confluence of the North Platte and the South Platte Rivers , which both arise from snowmelt in

1786-478: A true winter phenomenon. The refuge also provides important breeding habitat for Swainson's hawks , tri-colored blackbirds , marsh wrens , mallards , gadwall , cinnamon teal , and burrowing owls . Tri-colored blackbirds, a colonial-nesting songbird , breed in colonies of over 25,000 pairs. Coyotes , ground squirrels , desert cottontail rabbits, beaver , and long-tailed weasels can also be seen year-round. Vernal pools are another type of wetland found on

1880-528: A wingspan of 2.12 m (6 ft 11 in). The southern subspecies (along with A. c. rowani ) are intermediate, roughly according to Bergmann's rule . Three subspecies are resident: A. c. pulla of the Gulf Coast of the U.S. , A. c. pratensis of Florida and Georgia , and A. c. nesiotes of Cuba . The northern populations exist as fragmented remains in the contiguous U.S. and a large and contiguous population from Canada to Beringia . These migrate to

1974-594: Is a species of large crane of North America and extreme northeastern Siberia . The common name of this bird refers to their habitat such as the Platte River , on the edge of Nebraska 's Sandhills on the American Great Plains . Sandhill cranes are known to frequent the edges of bodies of water. The central Platte River valley in Nebraska is the most important stopover area for the nominotypical subspecies ,

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2068-527: Is a management tool used by the refuge to help control invasive weeds , provide and maintain short stature grasslands for goose grazing, and encourage native grasslands to thrive. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . Sandhill crane#Subspecies and evolution and see text and see text The sandhill crane ( Antigone canadensis )

2162-593: Is a tributary of the Missouri River , which itself is a tributary of the Mississippi River which flows to the Gulf of Mexico . The Platte over most of its length is a broad, shallow, meandering stream with a sandy bottom and many islands—a braided stream . The Platte is one of the most significant tributary systems in the watershed of the Missouri, draining a large portion of the central Great Plains in Nebraska and

2256-524: Is estimated at 3,240 cu ft/s (92 m /s). The Platte drains one of the most arid areas of the Great Plains with a flow that is considerably lower than rivers of comparable length in North America. For much of its length, it is a classic wide, muddy and shallow braided stream which in the lower reaches flows in a floodplain bordered by bluffs. During pioneer days, the common humorous description

2350-424: Is joined from the north by the about 70-mile-long (110 km) Loup River about 2 miles (3 km) southeast of Columbus. During pioneer days, a Loup River ferry crossed the river. From Columbus, the Platte flows almost due east about 50 miles (80 km) past North Bend and then on to Fremont . Near Fremont, the Platte bends south and then east around the location of Omaha in a large "L" turn. Near Fremont

2444-590: Is legal throughout the states of the Central Flyway, from the Dakotas and Wyoming south to Oklahoma and Texas. Nebraska is the sole state along the Central Flyway where hunting cranes is illegal. Despite losses from hunting, interspecies competition and other pressures such as habitat loss, the species has expanded its range. Since the early 2000s, the sandhill crane has expanded both its winter (nonbreeding) and breeding ranges northward, including into upstate New York. In

2538-461: Is much smaller due to the extensive water taken from it for irrigation. Historically, the North Platte River was up to a mile wide (1.6 km) in many places, as evidenced by the old streambed and historic written records. The South Platte River drainage includes about 28,000 square miles (73,000 km ) in the north east corner of Colorado, parts of southeastern Wyoming in the vicinity of

2632-608: Is said to be of this species , but this may be from a prehistoric relative or ancestor of sandhill cranes, and not belong in the genus Grus . The oldest unequivocal sandhill crane fossil is 2.5 million years old, older by half than the earliest remains of most living species of birds, primarily found from after the Pliocene / Pleistocene boundary some 1.8 million years ago. As these ancient sandhill cranes varied as much in size as present-day birds, those Pliocene fossils are sometimes described as new species. Grus haydeni may have been

2726-542: Is the state of Wyoming. The nearest Colorado town is Walden , the county seat. The rugged Rocky Mountains Continental Divide surrounding Jackson County have at least twelve peaks over 11,000 feet (3,400 m) in height. From Jackson County, the North Platte flows north about 200 miles (320 km) out of the Routt National Forest and North Park near what is now Walden to Casper, Wyoming . Shortly after passing Casper,

2820-546: Is useful to cranes preparing for migration, providing them with nutrients for the long journey. Among northern races of sandhill cranes, their diet is most varied, especially among breeding birds. They variously feed on berries , small mammals , insects , snails , reptiles , and amphibians . Sandhill cranes raise one brood per year. In nonmigratory populations, laying begins between December and August. In migratory populations, laying usually begins in April or May. Both members of

2914-586: Is usually much worn and stained, particularly in the migratory populations, and looks nearly ochre . The average weight of the larger males is 4.57 kg (10.1 lb), while the average weight of females is 4.02 kg (8.9 lb), with a range of 2.7 to 6.7 kg (6.0 to 14.8 lb) across the subspecies. Sandhill cranes have red foreheads, white cheeks, and long, dark, pointed bills . In flight, their long, dark legs trail behind, and their long necks keep straight. Immature birds have reddish-brown upperparts and gray underparts. The juveniles do not have

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3008-469: The Central Flyway . Fossil evidence in the Platte River valley indicates this crane stopover has been active for over 10 million years. Since the mid-20th century, this river has shrunk significantly. This reduction in size is attributed in part to its waters being used for irrigation, and to a much greater extent to the waters diverted and used by the growing population of Colorado, which has outstripped

3102-519: The Hudson Bay area of Canada by James Isham . When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition , he placed the sandhill crane with herons and cranes in the genus Ardea . Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Ardea canadensis , and cited Edwards' work. The sandhill crane was formerly placed in the genus Grus , but

3196-595: The Mormon Trail north of the Platte River and had to ferry across the Elkhorn. After the Union Pacific railroad was constructed west from Omaha in 1866, it had to build a major bridge across the Elkhorn. After the confluence of the Elkhorn and the Platte River, the Platte continues southward, about 7 miles (11 km) before it turns sharply and heads almost due East for about 20 miles (32 km) before its confluence with

3290-583: The Nebraskier , after its Oto name, meaning "flat water". The French later applied the French word plate (meaning flat, and pronounced plat , or platte ) to the river. Occupied by various Indian tribes for part of each year, the Platte River territory had been claimed by both Spanish and French explorers trying to rule the Great Plains. Spain had claimed all of the Great Plains after Coronado's 1541–42 expedition. Jose Naranjo, an African - Hopi who served as

3384-656: The Oregon boundary dispute with Britain in 1846, the conclusion of the Mexican–American War in 1848, and the California Gold Rush in 1849 and other gold and silver strikes rapidly attracted increased emigrant traffic west. The Platte River in the future state of Nebraska and the North Platte River in Wyoming typically had many channels and islands. The waterways were often too shallow, crooked, muddy and unpredictable for

3478-624: The South Fork South Platte River and Middle Fork South Platte River , approximately 15 miles (24 km) southeast of Fairplay, Colorado . After the South and Middle fork join, the South Platte flows east-southeast till it exits Elevenmile Reservoir; it turns almost ninety degrees to skirt the west side of Pikes Peak and flows roughly east-northeast about 100 miles (160 km) through Denver and on to Greeley, Colorado . From Greeley,

3572-467: The Southwestern United States and Mexico . These cranes are rare vagrants to China, South Korea , and Japan and very rare vagrants to Western Europe . Six subspecies have been recognized in recent times: The Florida sandhill crane was listed as EC or easily confused to facilitate an attempted reintroduction of the whooping crane ( Grus americana ) into Florida. The attempt failed, but

3666-504: The great sandhill crane ( A. c. canadensis ), with up to 450,000 of these birds migrating through annually. In 1750, English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the sandhill crane in the third volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds . He used the English name "The Brown and Ash-colour'd Crane". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a preserved specimen that had been brought to London from

3760-568: The interior least tern are birds using the flyway which have been classified as endangered and are protected under the Platte River Endangered Species Partnership. Common plants in the Platte River area are big and little bluestem, switch grass, and cottonwood trees. White-tail deer, many types of catfish, Canada geese, and bald eagles attract fans. The Platte River area has long supported many animals but recently, due to urbanization and farming causing loss of habitat,

3854-479: The 1540s, dramatically changed life in the Great Plains. Indian tribes could more easily follow the buffalo herds as they migrated from north to south and back. Before 1870, herds of several hundred thousand bison (buffalo) periodically migrated across the Platte in following seasonal grazing. The animals often waded or swam across the Platte. The first-known European to see the Platte was the French explorer Étienne de Veniard, sieur de Bourgmont in 1714, who named it

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3948-470: The 21st century, parts of the Midwestern United States have seen an extensive rebound of the species. The transplantation of wild birds and introduction of captive-reared birds into suitable low-population areas have been called viable management techniques. The Mississippi sandhill crane has lost the most range; it used to live along most of the northern Gulf of Mexico coast, and its range

4042-457: The Merced National Wildlife Refuge. These special pools form when natural shallow depressions underlaid with clay soils fill with winter rainwater. The pools come to life as they fill with water: fairy and tadpole shrimp emerge from cysts embedded in the soils the previous year. The endangered tiger salamander , along with other amphibians, lays eggs and rear tadpoles. The vast number of aquatic invertebrates found in these pools provides

4136-606: The Mississippi River to the British. The Spanish took over lands west of the Mississippi River. Since there were few fur-bearing animals on the Platte of interest to the fur traders , the French and British explorers and fur trappers ignored the Platte territory for some time. During the course of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), France briefly reacquired the land west of the Mississippi River from Spain. In 1804, Napoleon sold

4230-534: The Missouri River. Sarpy County is shaped like a crescent, being bounded on the east by the Missouri River, on the south and west by the Platte, and on the north by Douglas County which contains Omaha. The Platte-Missouri River confluence is about 10 miles (16 km) south of Omaha. Including the North Platte River, the Platte River stretches over 850 miles (1,400 km), with a drainage basin of about 90,000 square miles (230,000 km ). The mean annual flow

4324-445: The North Platte turns to the east-southeast and flows about 350 miles (560 km) to the city of North Platte, Nebraska. In Colorado and Wyoming, the North Platte is narrower and much swifter flowing than it is in Nebraska, where it becomes a slow flowing, shallow braided stream . The North Platte River has been dammed about eight times for water storage and irrigation purposes in Wyoming and Nebraska as it flows to its confluence with

4418-544: The Platte is joined from the north by the Elkhorn River . The Elkhorn, a 290-mile-long (470 km) river, originates in the eastern Sandhills of Nebraska and is one of the largest tributaries of the Platte River. The Elkhorn joins the Platte on its south-bound path just southwest of Omaha, approximately 1 mile (2 km) south and 3 miles (5 km) west of Gretna . The pioneers leaving from near Omaha (established 1854) or Council Bluffs, Iowa (established 1846) used

4512-404: The Platte turns sharply and flows south-southeast about 10 miles (16 km) to about Waterloo, Nebraska —located about 20 miles (32 km) west of Omaha. Near Waterloo the Platte turns even more and heads almost due south for about 10 miles (16 km). About 30 miles (48 km) east-southeast of Waterloo and about 30 miles (48 km) from the Platte's confluence with the Missouri River ,

4606-570: The Platte, North Platte River and Sweetwater River was first written about after its discovery in 1811 by Wilson Price Hunt of the Astor Expedition . He was returning to the Missouri River posts from the newly established Fort Astoria on the Columbia River near the Pacific Ocean. Because few American trappers and settlers were then in the contested Oregon Territory , his trail discovery

4700-583: The South Platte River trail into Colorado. After the North Platte and the South Platte rivers join to form the Platte River, over most of its length it is a sandy, broad, shallow, braided river. Its many shallow channels and islands and ever-changing sandbars made navigation difficult; it was never used as a major water transportation route. The Platte flows in a large arc, east-southeast to near Fort Kearny and then east-northeast, across Nebraska south of Grand Island and on to Columbus . The Platte River

4794-475: The South Platte River. The upper reaches of the river in the Rockies in Colorado and Wyoming are popular for recreation rafting and lure and fly fishing for rainbow , brown , cutthroat trout and other sport fish. In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the North Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi-arid region of North America. Today, by the time the North Platte reaches Paxton, Nebraska it

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4888-503: The South Platte turns east and flows about 200 miles (320 km) to its confluence with the North Platte River near the city of North Platte, Nebraska. The South Platte River has been dammed about 20 times for water storage, drinking water and irrigation purposes in Colorado as it flows to its confluence with the North Platte River. The total number of dams in the South Platte drainage may exceed 1,000 as nearly all major streams have at least one dam on them. The South Platte River serves as

4982-446: The US initially had little interest in settling the land on the plains. The next "good" land was believed to be in Oregon or California , especially the coastal areas, and those were the destinations of most emigrant traffic. The Mormons settled Utah , largely due to religious persecution in eastern areas. Various gold and silver strikes attracted further emigration to nearly all western states. The Native American trail west along

5076-450: The ability of its groundwater to sustain them. Varying cultures of indigenous peoples lived intermittently along the Platte for thousands of years before European exploration. Historical tribes claimed various territories in the region. The Indian tribes typically visited different areas in different seasons, as they followed the bison herds for hunting periods. The introduction of horses, which had escaped from early Spanish explorers in

5170-481: The area west of the Mississippi River to the US in the Louisiana Purchase ; the US roughly doubled its area at a cost of about $ 15,000,000. In 1820 the U.S. Army ordered Major Stephen H. Long to explore and map the area around the Platte. Long reported the area as a great American desert, despite its native inhabitants and wildlife, due to a lack of easily-cultivated land. As a result of his and other reports,

5264-428: The characteristic red foreheads, making it possible to distinguish the children from the parents, even when they are the same height. The sexes look alike. Sizes vary among the different subspecies ; the average height of these birds is around 80 to 136 cm (2 ft 7 in to 4 ft 6 in). Their wing chords are typically 41.8–60 cm (16.5–23.6 in), tails are 10–26.4 cm (3.9–10.4 in),

5358-441: The chicks form nomadic flocks with other juveniles and nonbreeders. They remain in these flocks until they form breeding pairs between two and seven years old. As a conspicuous ground-dwelling species, sandhill cranes are at risk from a few predators. Corvids , such as ravens and crows , gulls , jaegers , raptors and mammals such as foxes , coyotes and racoons feed on young cranes and eggs. In Oregon and California ,

5452-568: The city of Cheyenne and a small part of the southwest corner of Nebraska. The South Platte drains a large part of the Front Range mountains east of the continental divide. The part of the river labeled the South Platte is formed in Park County, Colorado , located southwest of Denver , in the South Park grassland basin and mountains east of the continental divide. It is formed by the confluence of

5546-519: The eastern Rocky Mountains in Colorado and Wyoming . The river valley played an important role in the westward expansion of the United States, providing the route for several major emigrant trails, including the Oregon , California , Mormon and Bozeman trails. The first Europeans to see the Platte were French explorers and fur trappers about 1714; they first called it the Nebraskier (Nebraska),

5640-525: The eastern Rockies east of the Continental Divide . In central north Colorado is the North Park valley, ringed by mountains of 12,000 feet (3,700 m) height; this is where the North Platte River originates. The head of the North Platte River is essentially all of Jackson County ; its boundaries are the continental divide on the west and south and the mountain drainage peaks on the east—the north boundary

5734-477: The exposed culmens are 6.9–16 cm (2.7–6.3 in) long, and the tarsi measure 15.5–26.6 cm (6.1–10.5 in). Wingspan is 78.7 in (200 cm). These cranes frequently give a loud, trumpeting call that suggests a rolled "r" in the throat, and they can be heard from a long distance. Mated pairs of cranes engage in "unison calling". The cranes stand close together, calling in a synchronized and complex duet. The female makes two calls for every one from

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5828-410: The first irrigation ditch to divert water from the Platte for farming. In March 1924, the U.S. Army Air Corps conducted a three-day bombing campaign on an ice gorge that threatened bridges near the town of North Bend. The Platte is in the middle of the Central Flyway, a primary north–south corridor for migratory birds from their summer nesting grounds in the north ( Alaska and Canada ), south for

5922-425: The four largest subpopulation now are larger than they were in the 1994–2002 surveys. Primary threats to Cuban sandhill cranes are habitat loss due to tree planting, spreading shrubs, expanding agriculture and fires, predation by non-native mammals (dogs, mongooses and feral pigs ), and poaching. Population fragmentation is also a problem, as all remaining localities are separated by distances that are greater than

6016-607: The largest distances non-migratory sandhill cranes are known to move. Sandhill cranes occasionally reach Europe as vagrants . The first British record was on Fair Isle in April 1981, and the second was in Shetland in 1991. Small groups have also been seen in parts of eastern China and Taiwan . In 2022, reports emerged of regular sightings of sandhill cranes in New Brunswick , on the Atlantic coast of Canada. The mythical Mothman ,

6110-415: The lesser sandhill crane, which, at about 400,000 individuals continent-wide, is the most plentiful extant crane. Some migratory populations of sandhill cranes face population threats due to interspecies competition with snow geese . Since the 1990s, snow geese have eaten waste corn on which the cranes also rely prior to migration. Sandhill crane populations are also threatened by hunting. Hunting cranes

6204-749: The listing remained. The current list of endangered subspecies includes only two birds, A. c. nesiotes and A. c. rowani , with A. c. pratensis no longer listed. Sandhill cranes occur in pastures, open prairies and freshwater wetlands in peninsular Florida from the Everglades to the Okefenokee Swamp. Some authorities no longer recognize Canadian sandhill crane as a distinct subspecies, as insignificant genetic differentiation and minimal morphological differentiation exist between it and greater sandhill crane. The others can be somewhat more reliably distinguished in hand by measurements and plumage details, apart from

6298-431: The male. Sandhill cranes' large wingspans, typically 1.65 to 2.30 m (5 ft 5 in to 7 ft 7 in), make them very skilled soaring birds, similar in style to hawks and eagles . Using thermals to obtain lift, they can stay aloft for many hours, requiring only occasional flapping of their wings, thus expending little energy. Migratory flocks contain hundreds of birds, and can create clear outlines of

6392-417: The modern era. Conceivably, they might be considered distinct species already, a monotypic G. canadensis and the greater sandhill crane, G. pratensis , which would include the other populations. The scant differences between southern Canadian and western U.S. populations appear to result from genetic drift , due to the recent reduction in population and range fragmentation. Until the early 20th century,

6486-625: The most northern of Spanish exploration trips into the central plains. A Pawnee and Otoe Indian attack defeated the Spanish forces; the survivors returned to Santa Fe, New Mexico , and the Spanish left the Great Plains to the American Indians. As a result of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) (called the French and Indian War in America), the French ceded all of their lands in North America east of

6580-436: The most serious predators of chicks are reportedly coyotes , ravens , raccoons , American mink , and great horned owls , roughly in descending order. Cranes of all ages can be hunted by both North American species of eagles , bobcats , and possibly American alligators . Additionally, there is a report that even a much smaller peregrine falcon has successfully killed a 3.1 kg (6.8 lb) adult sandhill crane in

6674-547: The normally invisible rising columns of air (thermals) they ride. Sandhill cranes fly south for the winter. In their wintering areas, they form flocks over 10,000. One place this happens is at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge , 100 miles (160 km) south of Albuquerque , New Mexico . An annual Sandhill Crane Festival is held there in November. Sandhill cranes have one of the longest fossil histories of any extant bird. A 10-million-year-old crane fossil from Nebraska

6768-707: The north and south banks of the Platte and North Platte River were the Oregon (1843–1869), California (1843–1869), Mormon (1847–1869) and the Bozeman (1863–68) trails. This network of trails, sometimes called the Emigrant Trails or the Great Platte River Road , all went west along both sides of the Platte River. The route along the Platte River included all these emigration trails and was developed as an important trail route used by migrant wagon trains for westward United States expansion after 1841. The settlement of

6862-419: The numbers have declined. Canada geese have adapted to the farm fields and scavenge a large part of their fare from unharvested grain. Many have taken up residence at suburban office parks and stopped seasonal migrations. The Platte River flowing through an arid part of the mid-west has been widely overused. The claims on the Platte River water have exceeded the supply of water in drier years. Under Nebraska law,

6956-466: The predator persists, the crane stabs with its bill and kicks. They can even kill predators by piercing through the skull with their sharp beak, and even coyotes can be killed. In the 1930s, sandhill cranes were generally extirpated east of the Mississippi River , but their populations have recovered, with an estimated 98,000 in the region in 2018, a substantial increase over the previous year. Although sandhill cranes are not considered threatened as

7050-519: The principal source of water for arid eastern Colorado. The South Platte River valley provided a major emigration path to Denver. The wagon trails followed the south side of the Platte/North Platte River. Wagon trains were ferried or waded in low water years across the swampy-bottomed South Platte River in several places to stay on the south side of the North Platte River where the trails were located. Miners who later went on to Denver followed

7144-671: The remaining populations are divided into ten localities (it formerly occurred in two additional localities) in six provinces . Based on the surveys from 1994 to 2002, six of the ten known localities each are home to less than 25 Cuban sandhill cranes; the last four each are home to more than 70. The two largest, one in the Zapata Swamp ( c. 120 cranes) and another on Isla de la Juventud ( c. 170 cranes), are increasing, whereas most other subpopulations appear to be stable, but some likely are too small for long-term survival and possibly are decreasing. Subsequent surveys indicate that at least

7238-526: The resident subspecies. The lesser and greater sandhill cranes are quite distinct, their divergence dating to roughly 2.3–1.2 million years ago , some time during the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene . Glaciation seemingly fragmented off a founder population of lesser sandhill cranes, because during each major ice age , its present breeding range was frozen year-round. Still, sandhill cranes are amply documented from fossil and subfossil remains right to

7332-426: The size differences already mentioned. Unequivocal identification often requires location information, which is often impossible in migrating birds. Analysis of control region mtDNA haplotype data shows two major lineages. The Arctic and the subarctic migratory population includes the lesser sandhill cranes. The other lineages can be divided into a migratory and some indistinct clusters which can be matched to

7426-447: The southern migratory birds occupied a much larger and continuous range. Thus, the subspecies A. c. rowani may well be abandoned. The two southern U.S. resident populations are somewhat more distinct. The Cuban population has been comparatively little studied, but appears to have been established on the island for a long time. They and the migratory greater sandhill cranes proper may form a group of lineages that diverged much later from

7520-511: The tens of thousands of arctic-nesting geese and sandhill cranes that make Merced County their winter home, they also help ensure that the birds will have adequate nutrient stores to make the long migration to their northern breeding grounds. Local farmers, under agreements with the refuge, oversee the ground preparation, seeding, and irrigation of these croplands. The refuge incorporates a livestock grazing program that works in partnership with local ranchers and farmers. Grazing cattle and sheep

7614-590: The trail. On their return trip, the fur traders carried out furs destined for eastern markets. The fur trade route was used to about 1840. By about 1832, the fur traders had improved the trail along the Platte, North Platte, and Sweetwater rivers to a rough wagon trail from the Missouri River to the Green River in Wyoming, where most of the Rocky Mountain Rendezvous were held. In 1834 Benjamin Bonneville ,

7708-530: The trails along the Platte. The Pony Express , operational from 1860–61, and the First Transcontinental Telegraph , completed in 1861, both followed the earlier emigrant trails along the Platte. The completion of the telegraph put the Pony Express out of business as it could provide much faster east–west communication. In 1866 the Union Pacific portion of the first Transcontinental Railroad

7802-400: The whooping cranes imprinted on their foster parents, later did not recognize other whooping cranes as their conspecifics , and unsuccessfully tried to pair with sandhill cranes, instead. The Cuban sandhill crane (subspecies A. c. nesiotes ) is not as rare as once believed and while it remains threatened its population is increasing. Based on very limited information, up until the 1990s it

7896-413: The winter, and the return in the spring. The Central Flyway bird species include trumpeter swans , tundra swans , over one million Canada geese , greater white-fronted geese , sandhill cranes, canvasback ducks and others. Other species such as bald eagles , herons and several species of ducks migrate through the Platte River area but over shorter distances. The whooping crane, piping plover , and

7990-579: The year. During migration and winter, unrelated cranes come together to form "survival groups" that forage and roost together. Such groups often congregate at migration and winter sites, sometimes in the thousands. Sandhill cranes are mainly herbivorous, but eat various types of food, depending on availability. They often feed with their bills down to the ground as they root around for seeds and other foods, in shallow wetlands with vegetation or various upland habitats. Cranes readily eat cultivated foods such as corn , wheat , cottonseed , and sorghum . Waste corn

8084-574: Was constructed along the Platte River as it started west from Omaha. In the 20th century, the Lincoln Highway and later Interstate 80 were constructed through the Platte valley. The highways parallel the Platte and the North Platte through much of Nebraska. Many of Nebraska’s larger cities originated on or near the Platte River, as it was the first path of transportation. These include Omaha (est. 1854), Fort Kearny (est. 1848), Grand Island (est. 1857) and North Platte (est. 1869). In 1859 settlers built

8178-587: Was dedicated at a ceremony at the National Grasslands Visitor Center in Wall, South Dakota . Platte River The Platte River ( / p l æ t / ) is a major American river, in the state of Nebraska . It is about 310 mi (500 km) long; measured to its farthest source via its tributary, the North Platte River , it flows for over 1,050 miles (1,690 km). The Platte River

8272-479: Was little used and nearly forgotten. In 1823 Jedediah Smith and several trappers "rediscovered" the route. The trail along the Platte, North Platte and Sweetwater rivers became a major route of fur traders to their summer Rocky Mountain Rendezvous . In 1824 fur trappers and traders directing mule trains carrying trade goods and supplies for the mountain men were some of the first European-American parties to use

8366-508: Was occasionally removed from the nests, starting in 1965, to become part of a captive flock. This breeding flock is divided between the Audubon Institute's Species Survival Center and White Oak Conservation in Yulee, Florida . These cranes have produced offspring for annual releases into the refuge. A Mississippi sandhill crane was the first bird to hatch from an egg fertilized by sperm that

8460-411: Was once nearly parapatric with that of its eastern neighbor. As of 2013, about 25 breeding pairs exist in an intensively managed population. The Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge —established in 1975 when fewer than 35 of the birds existed—has the biggest release program for cranes on Earth, and 90% of the cranes there were raised in captivity. The second viable egg from a two-egg nest

8554-524: Was silty and bad tasting, but it was usable if no other water was available. Emigrants learned to let it sit in a bucket for an hour or so to settle most of the silt. The trail(s) through the Platte River Valley extended about 450 miles (720 km) in the present state of Nebraska. Nearly all the trails from the Missouri converged on the Platte River at or before Fort Kearny in mid-state Nebraska. Historians have estimated about 400,000 emigrants followed

8648-434: Was that the Platte was "a mile wide at the mouth, but only six inches deep." 49ers said it was "too thick to drink, too thin to plow". In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi-arid region of North America. The central Platte River valley is an important stopover for migratory water birds, such as the whooping crane and sandhill crane , in their yearly traversal of

8742-576: Was thawed from a cryogenic state. This occurred at the Audubon Institute , as part of this subspecies' endangered species recovery plan . In January 2019, 25 to 30 thousand cranes (both greater and lesser subspecies) were found wintering at the Whitewater Draw State Wildlife Area near McNeal in southeast Arizona. Sandhill cranes have been tried as foster parents for whooping cranes in reintroduction schemes. This failed when

8836-472: Was typically believed to consist of about 300 birds. Detailed surveys conducted from 1994 to 2002 resulted in an estimate of about 525 individuals, while surveys from 2004 to 2015 estimated that the population now was above 550. Subsequent reviews have placed the Cuban sandhill crane population at around 700 birds in 2017. They inhabit dry or seasonally flooded grasslands and savannas, as well as nearby wetlands, and

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