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90-442: Medical research encompasses a wide array of research, extending from " basic research " (also called bench science or bench research ), – involving fundamental scientific principles that may apply to a preclinical understanding – to clinical research , which involves studies of people who may be subjects in clinical trials . Within this spectrum is applied research , or translational research , conducted to expand knowledge in

180-423: A 7.8% increase (adjusted for inflation). In 2007 the most heavily funded institutions received 20% of HIN medical research funding, and the top 50 institutions received 58% of NIH medical research funding, the percent of funding allocated to the largest institutions is a trend which has increased only slightly over data from 1994. Relative to federal and private funding, health policy and service research accounted for

270-565: A US regulatory standpoint where great investment has been made in research ethics and standards, yet trial results remain inconsistent. Federal agencies have called upon greater regulation to address these problems; a spokesman from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, an agency of the NIH, stated that there is "widespread poor reporting of experimental design in articles and grant applications, that animal research should follow

360-433: A climate of secrecy and self-protection, stifling creativity and collaboration. The power imbalance in academic hierarchies exacerbates these issues, with junior researchers often subjected to exploitative practices and denied proper recognition for their contributions. After clinical research, medical therapies are typically commercialized by private companies such as pharmaceutical companies or medical device company. In

450-690: A conflict of interest in the field of biomedical research. Survey results from one study concluded that 43% of scientific investigators employed by a participating academic institution had received research related gifts and discretionary funds from industry sponsors. Another participating institution surveyed showed that 7.6% of investigators were financially tied to research sponsors, including paid speaking engagements (34%), consulting arrangements (33%), advisory board positions (32%) and equity (14%). A 1994 study concluded that 58% out of 210 life science companies indicated that investigators were required to withhold information pertaining to their research as to extend

540-615: A core set of research parameters, and that a concerted effort by all stakeholders is needed to disseminate best reporting practices and put them into practice". Medical research is highly regulated. National regulatory authorities are appointed in most countries to oversee and monitor medical research, such as for the development and distribution of new drugs. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration oversees new drug development; in Europe,

630-453: A decline in the share of key research grants going to younger scientists, as well as a steady rise in the age at which investigators receive their first funding. A significant flaw in biomedical research is the toxic culture that particularly impacts medical students and early career researchers. They face challenges such as bullying, harassment, and unethical authorship practices. Intense competition for funding and publication pressures fosters

720-405: A doubling of NIH funding, spurring an era of great scientific progress. There have been dramatic changes in the era since the turn of the 21st century to date; roughly around the start of the century, the cost of trials dramatically increased while the rate of scientific discoveries did not keep pace. Biomedical research spending increased substantially faster than GDP growth over the past decade in

810-401: A drug is brought to the market. The Kefauver-Harris amendments were met with opposition from industry due to the requirement of lengthier clinical trial periods that would lessen the period of time in which the investor is able to see return on their money. In the pharmaceutical industry patents are typically granted for a 20-year period of time, and most patent applications are submitted during

900-654: A larger audience, as plain language adoption often involves rewriting very technical and field-specific documents, like legal and medical documents. Some scholars promote plain language use as a means of making documents accessible, especially for disabled readers or those who lack the expertise and education to understand overly technical documents. Simpler language can decrease a reader's cognitive load, and improve information retention in readers who normally struggle to read complex documents. Changes in font, text size, and colour can make texts more readable for individuals with impaired vision. Some scholars view plain language from

990-461: A limited number of competitors. Another visible shift during the era was a shift in focus to late stage research trials; formerly dispersed, since 1994 an increasingly large portion of industry-sponsored research was late phase trials rather than early-experimental phases now accounting for the majority of industry sponsored research. This shift is attributable to a lower risk investment and a shorter development to market schedule. The low risk preference

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1080-456: A nominal amount of sponsored research; health policy and service research was funded $ 1.8 billion in 2003, which increased to $ 2.2 billion in 2008. Stagnant rates of investment from the US government over the past decade may be in part attributable to challenges that plague the field. To date, only two-thirds of published drug trial findings have results that can be re-produced, which raises concerns from

1170-605: A primary interest (such as a person's welfare or the validity of research) tends to be unduly influenced by a secondary interest (such as financial gain)." Regulation on industry funded biomedical research has seen great changes since Samuel Hopkins Adams declaration. In 1906 congress passed the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906. In 1912 Congress passed the Shirley Amendment to prohibit the wide dissemination of false information on pharmaceuticals. The Food and Drug Administration

1260-486: A result of the Human Genome Project . Many challenges remain, however, including the appearance of antibiotic resistance and the obesity epidemic . Example areas in basic medical research include: cellular and molecular biology , medical genetics , immunology , neuroscience , and psychology . Researchers, mainly in universities or government-funded research institutes, aim to establish an understanding of

1350-464: A score of 8.0 means that an eighth grader can read the document. Others who later led plain language and readability research include educator Edgar Dale of Ohio State, Jeanne S. Chall of the Reading Laboratory of Harvard, and George R. Klare of Ohio University. Their efforts spurred the publication of over 200 readability formulas and 1,000 published studies on readability. Beginning in 1935,

1440-574: A series of literacy surveys showed that the average reader in the U.S. was an adult of limited reading ability. Today, the average adult in the U.S. reads at the 9th-grade level. Access to health information, educational and economic development opportunities, and government programs is often referred to in a social justice context. To ensure more community members can access this information, many adult educators, legal writers, and social program developers use plain language principles when they develop public documents . The goal of plain language translation

1530-733: A service. They can also help to make the research more grounded in the needs of the specific communities they are part of. Public contributors can also ensure that the research is presented in plain language that is clear to the wider society and the specific groups it is most relevant for. Research funding in many countries derives from research bodies and private organizations which distribute money for equipment, salaries, and research expenses. United States, Europe, Asia, Canada, and Australia combined spent $ 265.0 billion in 2011, which reflected growth of 3.5% annually from $ 208.8 billion in 2004. The United States contributed 49% of governmental funding from these regions in 2011 compared to 57% in 2004. In

1620-399: A social justice perspective as a means of increasing equal access to information, especially for marginalized populations that might have decreased access to education. While plain language has positive practical outcomes across many situations, it can also be understood within the framework of ethical action. While not all plain language practitioners and scholars agree that "Plain language

1710-399: A stark contrast in federal investment, from 1994 to 2003, federal funding increased 100% (adjusted for inflation). The NIH manages the majority, over 85%, of federal biomedical research expenditures. NIH support for biomedical research decreased from $ 31.8 billion in 2003, to $ 29.0 billion in 2007, a 25% decline (in real terms adjusted for inflation), while non-NIH federal funding allowed for

1800-795: A stark contrast to 25% increase in recent years. Of industry sponsored research, pharmaceutical firm spending was the greatest contributor from all industry sponsored biomedical research spending, but only increased 15% (adjusted for inflation) from 2003 to 2007, while device and biotechnology firms accounted for the majority of the spending. The stock performance, a measure that can be an indication of future firm growth or technological direction, has substantially increased for both predominantly medical device and biotechnology producers. Contributing factors to this growth are thought to be less rigorous FDA approval requirements for devices as opposed to drugs, lower cost of trials, lower pricing and profitability of products and predictable influence of new technology due to

1890-507: A working partnership between patients, caregivers, people with lived experience, and researchers to shape and influence what is researcher and how. PPI can improve the quality of research and make it more relevant and accessible. People with current or past experience of illness can provide a different perspective than professionals and complement their knowledge. Through their personal knowledge they can identify research topics that are relevant and important to those living with an illness or using

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1980-597: Is "written in plain English and understandable to those who must comply with it". President Ronald Reagan rescinded these orders in 1981, but many political agencies continued to follow them. By 1991, eight states had also passed legislation related to plain language. Plain Language Association International (PLAIN) was formed in 1993 as the Plain Language Network. Its membership is international; it

2070-570: Is a civil right", as the motto for the US-based Center for Plain Language declares, many practitioners agree that using plain language is part of ethical action, such as being responsive, respectful, honest, truthful and fair. On the other hand, plain language can also be used for unethical ends, such as to obscure or withhold truths. Willerton proposes the BUROC framework for identifying situations requiring

2160-760: Is a type of scientific research with the aim of improving scientific theories for better understanding and prediction of natural or other phenomena. In contrast, applied research uses scientific theories to develop technology or techniques, which can be used to intervene and alter natural or other phenomena. Though often driven simply by curiosity , basic research often fuels the technological innovations of applied science . The two aims are often practiced simultaneously in coordinated research and development . In addition to innovations, basic research serves to provide insights and public support of nature, possibly improving conservation efforts. Technological innovations may influence engineering concepts, such as

2250-522: Is also gaining traction in U.S. courts and legal aid agencies. California was the first state to adopt plain language court forms and instructions, for which it received the 2003 Burton Award for Outstanding Reform. A 2006 comparative study of plain language court forms concluded that "plain language court forms and instructions are better understood, easier to use, and more economical". The European Union provides standards for making information easy to read and understand. The rules are comparable to

2340-434: Is also reflected in the trend of large pharmaceutical firms acquiring smaller companies that hold patents to newly developed drug or device discoveries which have not yet passed federal regulation (large companies are mitigating their risk by purchasing technology created by smaller companies in early-phase high-risk studies). Medical research support from universities increased from $ 22 billion in 2003 to $ 27.7 billion in 2007,

2430-544: Is commonly assumed that children and adults prefer trashy stories in large measure because they are more exciting and more stimulating in respect to sex. There is, however, reason to believe that greater ease of reading in respect to vocabulary, construction, and facts, is a very important cause of preference. A count of the vocabulary of "best sellers" and a summary of it in terms of our list would thus be very instructive. The 1930s saw many studies on how to make texts more readable. In 1931, Douglas Tyler and Ralph Waples published

2520-544: Is funded by industry can be considered valid after a 2003 publication of "Scope and Impact of Financial Conflicts of Interest in Biomedical Research" in The Journal of American Association of Medicine. This publication included 37 different studies that met specific criteria to determine whether or not an academic institution or scientific investigator funded by industry had engaged in behavior that could be deduced to be

2610-421: Is important to consider what the target audience needs to accomplish, and what and how much information they need to complete it. The needs of the target audience will also affect the chosen vocabulary: writing for someone in the same field as the author is different from writing for someone whose native language is not English. Provide informative headings, topic sentences, and frequent summaries to help orient

2700-489: Is in plain language if the target audience can read it, understand what they read, and confidently act on it". Writing in plain language does not mean oversimplifying the concepts, but presenting the information in a way that makes it easier to understand and use by a wider audience. Texts written in plain language are still formal, but are easier to read and inspire confidence for the reader. Using plain language in communications ultimately improves efficiency, because there

2790-501: Is less ambiguity for the readers, and less time is taken for clarifications and explanations. Clear communication improves the user's experience with the organization, ultimately creating trust in the company. Writers who wish to write in plain language must first and foremost consider their target audience. This should influence what information is included in the text and how it is written. Different audiences have different needs, and require different information. When writing, it

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2880-482: Is managed and made publicly available on usaspending.gov. Aside from the main source, usaspending.gov, other reporting mechanisms exist: Data specifically on biomedical research funding from federal sources is made publicly available by the National Health Expenditure Accounts (NHEA), data on health services research, approximately 0.1% of federal funding on biomedical research, is available through

2970-513: Is only a small part of medical research. Most of the research in the field is pursued by biomedical scientists , but significant contributions are made by other type of biologists . Medical research on humans has to strictly follow the medical ethics sanctioned in the Declaration of Helsinki and the institutional review board where the research is conducted. In all cases, research ethics are expected. The increased longevity of humans over

3060-402: Is that of which industry is the financier for academic institutions which in turn employ scientific investigators to conduct research. A fear that exists wherein a project is funded by industry is that firms might negate informing the public of negative effects to better promote their product. A list of studies shows that public fear of the conflicts of interest that exist when biomedical research

3150-521: Is the most common. Basic research generates new ideas, principles, and theories, which may not be immediately utilized but nonetheless form the basis of progress and development in different fields. Today's computers, for example, could not exist without research in pure mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical application at the time. Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns; nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking that have

3240-463: Is to increase accessibility for those with lower literacy levels. In the United States, the movement towards plain language legal writing began with the 1963 book Language of the Law , by David Mellinkoff. However, the movement was popularized by Richard Wydick's 1979 book Plain English for Lawyers. This was followed by famous plain language promissory notes by Nationwide Mutual Insurance and Citibank in

3330-595: The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation , contributed about 3% of the funding. These funders are attempting to maximize their return on investment in public health . One method proposed to maximize the return on investment in medicine is to fund the development of open source hardware for medical research and treatment. The enactment of orphan drug legislation in some countries has increased funding available to develop drugs meant to treat rare conditions, resulting in breakthroughs that previously were uneconomical to pursue. Since

3420-601: The European Medicines Agency (see also EudraLex ); and in Japan , the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare . The World Medical Association develops the ethical standards for medical professionals involved in medical research. The most fundamental of them is the Declaration of Helsinki . The International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) works on

3510-571: The Plain Writing Act of 2010 , which required federal executive agencies to put all new and revised covered documents into plain language. The Act's sponsor, U.S. Representative Bruce Braley , noted upon its passage that "The writing of documents in the standard vernacular English language will bolster and increase the accountability of government within America and will continue to more effectively save time and money in this country." Plain language

3600-680: The United Kingdom , funding bodies such as the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) and the Medical Research Council derive their assets from UK tax payers, and distribute revenues to institutions by competitive research grants . The Wellcome Trust is the UK's largest non-governmental source of funds for biomedical research and provides over £600 million per year in grants to scientists and funds for research centres. In

3690-430: The experimental subjects . It is generally supervised by physicians and conducted by nurses in a medical setting, such as a hospital or research clinic, and requires ethical approval. Besides being participants in a clinical trial, members of the public can actively collaborate with researchers in designing and conducting medical research. This is known as patient and public involvement (PPI). Public involvement involves

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3780-561: The 1970s. Concerned about the large number of suits against its customers to collect bad debts, the bank voluntarily made the decision to implement plain language policies in 1973. That same decade, the consumer-rights movement won legislation that required plain language in contracts, insurance policies, and government regulations. American law schools began requiring students to take legal writing classes that encouraged them to use plain English as much as possible and to avoid legal jargon, except when absolutely necessary. Public outrage with

3870-509: The Buyer", and Edward L. Thorndike 's "The Teacher's Word Book" picked up where Sherman left off. Kitson's work was the first to apply empirical psychology to advertising. He advised the use of short words and sentences. Thorndike's work contained the frequency ratings of 10,000 words. He recommended using the ratings in his book to grade books not only for students in schools but also for average readers and adults learning English. Thorndike wrote: It

3960-801: The Coalition of Health Services Research, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, and the Veterans Health Administration. Currently, there are not any funding reporting requirements for industry sponsored research, but there has been voluntary movement toward this goal. In 2014, major pharmaceutical stakeholders such as Roche and Johnson and Johnson have made financial information publicly available and Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA),

4050-542: The English Renaissance, from John Skelton through Ben Jonson and include such poets as Barnabe Googe , George Gascoigne , Walter Raleigh , and perhaps the later work of Fulke Greville . In addition to its purely linguistic plainness, the Plain Style employed an emphatic, pre-Petrarchan prosody (each syllable either clearly stressed or clearly unstressed). By the end of the 19th century, scholars began to study

4140-559: The FDA remained stagnant over the same time span. Financial projections indicate federal spending will remain constant in the near future. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the agency that is responsible for management of the lion's share of federal funding of biomedical research. It funds over 280 areas directly related to health. Over the past century there were two notable periods of NIH support. From 1995 to 1996 funding increased from $ 8.877 billion to $ 9.366 billion, years which represented

4230-516: The National Science Foundation. A worker in basic scientific research is motivated by a driving curiosity about the unknown. When his explorations yield new knowledge, he experiences the satisfaction of those who first attain the summit of a mountain or the upper reaches of a river flowing through unmapped territory. Discovery of truth and understanding of nature are his objectives. His professional standing among his fellows depends upon

4320-457: The Rights of Persons with Disabilities includes plain language in its definition of communication . Most literacy and communications scholars agree that plain language means: Plain language focuses on ways of writing a text so that it is clear, concise, pertinent, efficient, and flows well for the reader. The Center for Plain Language states that: "[a] document, web site or other information

4410-400: The US has seen great movement over the years. The 1980 Bayh–Dole Act was passed by Congress to foster a more constructive relationship between the collaboration of government and industry funded biomedical research. The Bayh Doyle Act gave private corporations the option of applying for government funded grants for biomedical research which in turn allowed the private corporations to license

4500-428: The US, between the years of 2003 and 2007 spending increased 14% per year, while GDP growth increased 1% over the same period (both measures adjusted for inflation). Industry, not-for-profit entities, state and federal funding spending combined accounted for an increase in funding from $ 75.5 billion in 2003 to $ 101.1 billion in 2007. Due to the immediacy of federal financing priorities and stagnant corporate spending during

4590-675: The United States, data from ongoing surveys by the National Science Foundation (NSF) show that federal agencies provided only 44% of the $ 86 billion spent on basic research in 2015. The National Institutes of Health and pharmaceutical companies collectively contribute $ 26.4 billion and $ 27 billion, which constitute 28% and 29% of the total, respectively. Other significant contributors include biotechnology companies ($ 17.9 billion, 19% of total), medical device companies ($ 9.2 billion, 10% of total), other federal sources, and state and local governments. Foundations and charities, led by

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4680-531: The United States, one estimate found that in 2011, one-third of Medicare physician and outpatient hospital spending was on new technologies unavailable in the prior decade. Medical therapies are constantly being researched, so the difference between a therapy which is investigational versus standard of care is not always clear, particularly given cost-effectiveness considerations. Payers have utilization management clinical guidelines which do not pay for "experimental or investigational" therapies, or may require that

4770-422: The beak of a kingfisher influencing the design of a high-speed bullet train. Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the world. It focuses on creating and refuting or supporting theories that explain observed phenomena. Pure research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory , descriptive , or explanatory; however, explanatory research

4860-417: The cellular, molecular and physiological mechanisms of human health and disease. Pre-clinical research covers understanding of mechanisms that may lead to clinical research with people. Typically, the work requires no ethical approval, is supervised by scientists rather than physicians , and is carried out in a university or company, rather than a hospital. Clinical research is carried out with people as

4950-402: The creation of rules and guidelines for the development of new medication, such as the guidelines for Good Clinical Practice (GCP). All ideas of regulation are based on a country's ethical standards code. This is why treatment of a particular disease in one country may not be allowed, but is in another. A major flaw and vulnerability in biomedical research appears to be the hypercompetition for

5040-478: The early stages of the product development. According to Ariel Katz on average after a patent application is submitted it takes an additional 8 years before the FDA approves a drug for marketing. As such this would leave a company with only 12 years to market the drug to see a return on their investments. After a sharp decline of new drugs entering the US market following the 1962 Kefauver-Harris amendments economist Sam Petlzman concluded that cost of loss of innovation

5130-483: The establishment of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the mid-1940s, the main source of U.S. federal support of biomedical research, investment priorities and levels of funding have fluctuated. From 1995 to 2010, NIH support of biomedical research increased from 11 billion to 27 billion Despite the jump in federal spending, advancements measured by citations to publications and the number of drugs passed by

5220-567: The ethical action of plain language: bureaucratic, unfamiliar, rights-oriented, critical. Cicero argued, "When you wish to instruct, be brief; that men's minds take in quickly what you say, learn its lesson, and retain it faithfully. Every word that is unnecessary only pours over the side of a brimming mind." Shakespeare parodied the pretentious style, as in the speeches of Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing . The plain, or native style, was, in fact, an entire literary tradition during

5310-530: The features of plain language. A. L. Sherman, a professor of English literature at the University of Nebraska, wrote Analytics of Literature: A Manual for the Objective Study of English Prose and Poetry in 1893. In this work, Sherman showed that the typical English sentence has shortened over time and that spoken English is a pattern for written English. Sherman wrote: Literary English, in short, will follow

5400-490: The field of medicine . Both clinical and preclinical research phases exist in the pharmaceutical industry 's drug development pipelines, where the clinical phase is denoted by the term clinical trial . However, only part of the clinical or preclinical research is oriented towards a specific pharmaceutical purpose. The need for fundamental and mechanism-based understanding, diagnostics , medical devices , and non-pharmaceutical therapies means that pharmaceutical research

5490-416: The first time reporting regulations that were previously not required. The 2006 Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act mandates that all entities receiving over $ 25,000 in federal funds must report annual spending reports, including disclosure of executive salaries. The 2010 amendment to the act mandates that progress reports be submitted along with financial reporting. Data from the federal mandate

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5580-416: The forms of the standard spoken English from which it comes. No man should talk worse than he writes, no man writes better than he should talk.... The oral sentence is clearest because it is the product of millions of daily efforts to be clear and strong. It represents the work of the race for thousands of years in perfecting an effective instrument of communication. Two 1921 works, Harry Kitson's "The Mind of

5670-433: The letters are less distinguishable from one another. Simple design elements like leaving white spaces, using bullets, and choosing contrasting colours encourages a user to read the text and increases readability. Proponents of plain language adoption argue that it improves reading comprehension and readability, and grants readers greater access to information. Simple language allows documents to be read and understood by

5760-458: The life of the interested companies' patents. Rules and regulations regarding conflict of interest disclosures are being studied by experts in the biomedical research field to eliminate conflicts of interest that could possibly affect the outcomes of biomedical research. Two laws which are both still in effect, one passed in 2006 and the other in 2010, were instrumental in defining funding reporting standards for biomedical research, and defining for

5850-407: The maintenance of government financial support levels through the era (the 0.7% four-year increase). Spending from industry-initiated research increased 25% (adjusted for inflation) over the same time period of time, from 2003 to 2007, an increase from $ 40 billion in 2003, to $ 58.6 billion in 2007. Industry sourced expenditures from 1994 to 2003 showed industry sponsored research funding increased 8.1%,

5940-469: The most prominent professional association for biomedical research companies, has recently begun to provide limited public funding reports. The earliest narrative describing a medical trial is found in the Book of Daniel , which says that Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar ordered youths of royal blood to eat only red meat and wine for three years, while another group of youths ate only beans and water. The experiment

6030-468: The originality and soundness of his work. Creativeness in science is of a cloth with that of the poet or painter. It conducted a study in which it traced the relationship between basic scientific research efforts and the development of major innovations, such as oral contraceptives and videotape recorders. This study found that basic research played a key role in the development in all of the innovations. The number of basic science research that assisted in

6120-558: The past century can be significantly attributed to advances resulting from medical research. Among the major benefits of medical research have been vaccines for measles and polio , insulin treatment for diabetes , classes of antibiotics for treating a host of maladies, medication for high blood pressure , improved treatments for AIDS , statins and other treatments for atherosclerosis , new surgical techniques such as microsurgery , and increasingly successful treatments for cancer . New, beneficial tests and treatments are expected as

6210-484: The plain-language movement. In 1975, Flesch collaborated with J. Peter Kincaid to create the Flesch-Kincaid readability test , which uses an algorithm to produce grade level scores that predict the level of education required to read the selected text. The instrument looks at word length (number of letters) and sentence length (number of words) and produces a score that is tied to a U.S. grade school level. For example,

6300-585: The potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem in the future. In the United States, basic research is funded mainly by the federal government and done mainly at universities and institutes. As government funding has diminished in the 2010s, however, private funding is increasingly important. Applied science focuses on the development of technology and techniques. In contrast, basic science develops scientific knowledge and predictions, principally in natural sciences but also in other empirical sciences, which are used as

6390-626: The pretentious diction, meaninglessness, vagueness, and worn-out idioms of political jargon. In 1979, the Plain English Campaign was founded in London to combat "gobbledegook, jargon and legalese". Lyman Bryson at Teachers College in Columbia University led efforts to supply average readers with more books of substance dealing with science and current events. Bryson's students include Irving Lorge and Rudolf Flesch , who became leaders in

6480-766: The production of a given innovation peaked between 20 and 30 years before the innovation itself. While most innovation takes the form of applied science and most innovation occurs in the private sector, basic research is a necessary precursor to almost all applied science and associated instances of innovation. Roughly 76% of basic research is conducted by universities. A distinction can be made between basic science and disciplines such as medicine and technology. They can be grouped as STM (science, technology, and medicine; not to be confused with STEM [science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]) or STS (science, technology, and society). These groups are interrelated and influence each other, although they may differ in

6570-725: The reader. For complex documents, create a comprehensive table of contents. Organize the text logically: the most important information should be mentioned first, in the text as a whole and in every individual paragraph . Headings help the reader skim the text more rapidly to find what they're looking for. Sentences should be kept short, and only include necessary information. A long, verbose sentence tends to present too much information at once, and blurs its main point. The text should be direct and concise, and have an easy flow to it. The chosen vocabulary must remain simple and familiar. Everyday language should be favoured against acronyms, jargon and legal language. Plain language favours

6660-673: The recession, biomedical research spending decreased 2% in real terms in 2008. Despite an overall increase of investment in biomedical research, there has been stagnation, and in some areas a marked decline in the number of drug and device approvals over the same time period. As of 2010, industry sponsored research accounts for 58% of expenditures, NIH for 27% of expenditures, state governments for 5% of expenditures, non NIH-federal sources for 5% of expenditures and not-for-profit entities accounted for 4% of support. Federally funded biomedical research expenditures increased nominally, 0.7% (adjusted for inflation), from 2003 to 2007. Previous reports showed

6750-562: The resources and positions that are required to conduct science. The competition seems to suppress the creativity, cooperation, risk-taking, and original thinking required to make fundamental discoveries. Other consequences of today's highly pressured environment for research appear to be a substantial number of research publications whose results cannot be replicated, and perverse incentives in research funding that encourage grantee institutions to grow without making sufficient investments in their own faculty and facilities. Other risky trends include

6840-470: The results of their two-year study, "What People Want to Read About". In 1934, Ralph Ojemann, Edgar Dale , and Ralph Waples published two studies on writing for adults with limited reading ability. In 1935, educational psychologist William S. Gray teamed up with Bernice Leary to publish their study, "What Makes a Book Readable". George Orwell 's 1946 essay " Politics and the English Language " decried

6930-680: The rules for plain language. Based in Germany there is a dictionary for plain language called Hurraki. In France , a 2002 decision by the Constitutional Council recognized a constitutional goal of ensuring the "clarity and intelligibility" of French law. In 2013 the Israeli Knesset passed service accessibility regulations which mandated the use of simple language and/or language simplification (Hebrew = פישוט לשוני), which were subsequently codified in 2015 for implementation. ISO has formed

7020-457: The scientific foundation for applied science. Basic science develops and establishes information to predict phenomena and perhaps to understand nature, whereas applied science uses portions of basic science to develop interventions via technology or technique to alter events or outcomes. Applied and basic sciences can interface closely in research and development . The interface between basic research and applied research has been studied by

7110-552: The skyrocketing number of unreadable government forms led to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980. In 1972, the Plain Language Movement received practical political application, when President Richard Nixon decreed that the "Federal Register be written in layman's terms". On March 23, 1978, U.S. President Jimmy Carter signed Executive Order 12044, which said that federal officials must see that each regulation

7200-781: The specifics such as methods and standards. The Nobel Prize mixes basic with applied sciences for its award in Physiology or Medicine . In contrast, the Royal Society of London awards distinguish natural science from applied science. Plain language Plain language is writing designed to ensure the reader understands as quickly, easily, and completely as possible. Plain language strives to be easy to read, understand, and use. It avoids verbose , convoluted language and jargon . In many countries, laws mandate that public agencies use plain language to increase access to programs and services. The United Nations Convention on

7290-492: The start of what is considered the "doubling period" of rapid NIH support. The second notable period started in 1997 and ended in 2010, a period where the NIH moved to organize research spending for engagement with the scientific community. Since 1980 the share of biomedical research funding from industry sources has grown from 32% to 62%, which has resulted in the development of numerous life-saving medical advances. The relationship between industry and government-funded research in

7380-418: The technology. Both government and industry research funding increased rapidly from between the years of 1994–2003; industry saw a compound average annual growth rate of 8.1% a year and slowed only slightly to a compound average annual growth rate of 5.8% from 2003 to 2008. " Conflict of interest " in the field of medical research has been defined as "a set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning

7470-468: The therapy is medically necessary or superior to cheaper treatments. For example, proton therapy was approved by the FDA, but private health insurers in the United States considered it unproven or unnecessary given its high cost, although it was ultimately covered for certain cancers. Fields of biomedical research include: Basic research Basic research , also called pure research , fundamental research , basic science , or pure science ,

7560-495: The use of the verb form of the word, instead of the noun form. To increase clarity, use the active voice, in which the subject does the action of the verb. Sentences written in plain language have a positive construction and address the reader directly. Writing in plain language also takes into account the presentation of the text. It is important to choose a font that is easy to read, and set it to an adequate size. Sentences written in capital letters are harder to read because

7650-416: The world to date and claims responsibility for numerous innovations that have improved global health. The historical funding of biomedical research has undergone many changes over the past century. Innovations such as the polio vaccine, antibiotics and antipsychotic agents, developed in the early years of the NIH lead to social and political support of the agency. Political initiatives in the early 1990s lead to

7740-466: Was created to support and regulate this curiosity. In 1945, Vannevar Bush said that biomedical scientific research was "the pacemaker of technological progress", an idea which contributed to the initiative to found the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1948, a historical benchmark that marked the beginning of a near century substantial investment in biomedical research. The NIH provides more financial support for medical research than any other agency in

7830-610: Was formally created in 1930 under the McNarey Mapes Amendment to oversee the regulation of Food and Drugs in the United States. In 1962 the Kefauver-Harris Amendments to the Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act made it so that before a drug was marketed in the United States the FDA must first approve that the drug was safe. The Kefauver-Harris amendments also mandated that more stringent clinical trials must be performed before

7920-641: Was greater than the savings recognized by consumers no longer purchasing ineffective drugs. In 1984 the Hatch-Waxman Act or the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 was passed by congress. The Hatch-Waxman Act was passed with the idea that giving brand manufacturers the ability to extend their patent by an additional 5 years would create greater incentives for innovation and private sector funding for investment. The relationship that exists with industry funded biomedical research

8010-643: Was incorporated as a non-profit organization in Canada in 2008. In June 1998, President Bill Clinton issued a memorandum that called for executive departments and agencies to use plain language in all government documents. Vice President Al Gore subsequently led a plain language initiative that formed a group called the Plain Language Action Network (PLAIN) to provide plain language training to government agencies. PLAIN provided guidance to federal executive agencies when President Barack Obama signed

8100-423: Was intended to determine if a diet of vegetables and water was healthier than a diet of wine and red meat. At the experiment endpoint, the trial accomplished its prerogative: the youths who ate only beans and water were noticeably healthier. Scientific curiosity to understand health outcomes from varying treatments has been present for centuries, but it was not until the mid-19th century when an organizational platform

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