2nd: 22,000–24,000
171-528: Mauna Loa ( / ˌ m ɔː n ə ˈ l oʊ . ə , ˌ m aʊ n ə -/ , Hawaiian : [ˈmɐwnə ˈlowə] ; lit. ' Long Mountain ' ) is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . Mauna Loa is Earth's largest active volcano by both mass and volume. It was historically considered to be the largest volcano on Earth until Tamu Massif
342-432: A hazard zone mapping of the island done on a one to nine scale, with the most dangerous areas corresponding the smallest numbers. Based on this classification Mauna Loa's continuously active summit caldera and rift zones have been given a level one designation. Much of the area immediately surrounding the rift zones is considered level two, and about 20 percent of the area has been covered in lava in historical times. Much of
513-546: A subduction zone at the border of Russia . The oldest confirmed age for one of the Emperor Seamounts is 81 million years, for Detroit Seamount . However, Meiji Seamount , located to the north of Detroit Seamount, is likely somewhat older. In 1963, geologist John Tuzo Wilson hypothesized the origins of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, explaining that they were created by a hotspot of volcanic activity that
684-628: A 14 m (46 ft) tsunami that killed two campers at Halape. Established on Kīlauea in 1912, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), presently a branch of the United States Geological Survey, is the primary organization associated with the monitoring, observance, and study of Hawaiian volcanoes. Thomas A. Jaggar , the Observatory's founder, attempted a summit expedition to Mauna Loa to observe its 1914 eruption, but
855-655: A Hawaiian language news broadcast. Honolulu television station KGMB ran a weekly Hawaiian language program, ʻĀhaʻi ʻŌlelo Ola , as recently as 2010. Additionally, the Sunday editions of the Honolulu Star-Advertiser , the largest newspaper in Hawaii, feature a brief article called Kauakukalahale written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members. Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which
1026-399: A consequence of its extremely fluid lava. The shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts , like those of Mauna Kea , created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust. Mauna Loa's summit hosts three overlapping pit craters arranged northeast–southwest, the first and last roughly 1 km (0.6 mi) in diameter and
1197-440: A critically endangered language. However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian would not have worked by itself. Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children. Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%. At
1368-499: A direct course for the summit. However, on the second day of traveling the route became steeper, rougher, and blocked by "impenetrable thickets," and the group was forced to abandon their attempt and return to Kealakekua Bay , reckoning they had "penetrated 24 miles and we suppose [were] within 11 miles of the peak"; in reality, Mokuʻāweoweo lies only 32 km (20 mi) east of the bay, a severe overestimation on Ledyard's part. Another of Cook's men, Lieutenant James King , estimated
1539-498: A grammar of Hawaiian in which he made it clear that the glottal stop (calling it "guttural break") is definitely a true consonant of the Hawaiian language. He wrote it using an apostrophe. In 1922, the Andrews-Parker dictionary of Hawaiian made limited use of the opening single quote symbol, then called "reversed apostrophe" or "inverse comma", to represent the glottal stop. Subsequent dictionaries and written material associated with
1710-582: A hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i.e., ā ē ī ō ū and Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū . It is used to show that the marked vowel is a "double", or "geminate", or "long" vowel, in phonological terms. (See: Vowel length ) As early as 1821, at least one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham , was using macrons (and breves ) in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels. The missionaries specifically requested their sponsor in Boston to send them some type (fonts) with accented vowel characters, including vowels with macrons, but
1881-508: A large number of GPS stations, tiltmeters , and strainmeters that have been anchored on the volcano to monitor ground deformation due to swelling of Mauna Loa's subterranean magma chamber , which presents a more complete picture of the events proceeding eruptive activity. The GPS network is the most durable and wide-ranging of the three systems, while the tiltmeters provide the most sensitive predictive data, but are prone to erroneous results unrelated to actual ground deformation; nonetheless
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#17328453196422052-591: A major impact on the future of the language. He sailed to New England , where he eventually became a student at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut . He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawaiʻi, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawaiʻi in 1819. Adelbert von Chamisso too might have consulted with
2223-571: A minor revision. The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language and culture. Language revitalization and Hawaiian culture has seen a major revival since the Hawaiian renaissance in the 1970s. Forming in 1983, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , meaning "language nest" in Hawaiian, opened its first center in 1984. It was a privately funded Hawaiian preschool program that invited native Hawaiian elders to speak to children in Hawaiian every day. Efforts to promote
2394-511: A native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, Germany , before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian ( Über die Hawaiische Sprache ) in 1837. Like all natural spoken languages, the Hawaiian language was originally an oral language. The native people of the Hawaiian language relayed religion, traditions, history, and views of their world through stories that were handed down from generation to generation. One form of storytelling most commonly associated with
2565-604: A nearly straight and, in its latter sections, poorly defined trend. The northeastern rift zone takes the form of a succession of cinder cones, the most prominent of which the 60 m (197 ft) high Puu Ulaula, or Red Hill. There is also a less definite northward rift zone that extends towards the Humuula Saddle marking the intersection of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. Simplified geophysical models of Mauna Loa's magma chamber have been constructed, using interferometric synthetic aperture radar measures of ground deformation due to
2736-492: A new phase in the development of Hawaiian. During the next forty years, the sounds of Spanish (1789), Russian (1804), French (1816), and German (1816) arrived in Hawaiʻi via other explorers and businessmen. Hawaiian began to be written for the first time, largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travelers. The early explorers and merchants who first brought European languages to
2907-439: A servant (most likely Jonathan Ewins, listed on the ship's muster as "Botanist's L't") reached the summit, which Menzies estimated to be 4,156 m (13,635 ft) high with the aid of a barometer (consistent with a modern value of 4,169 m, 13,678 ft). He was surprised to find heavy snow and morning temperatures of −3 °C (27 °F), and was unable to compare the heights of Mauna Loa and Kea but correctly supposed
3078-521: A significant role in northern directional pull on the Pacific Plate. Around 47 million years ago, these northern forces came to an end. Near the same time, there were notable changes in the movement of the Hawaiian hotspot. Approximately 50 Ma, the Hawaiian hotspot started to drift to the south. However, there is not a widely accepted theory as to the mechanism that caused the hotspot to drift. The combination of these events along with new subduction zones in
3249-578: A significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836), grammar (1854), and dictionary (1865) of Hawaiian. The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar compulsory education law
3420-515: A survey line across the caldera measured a 76 mm (3 in) increase in its width over the year preceding the 1975 eruption, and a similar increase in 1984 eruption. Strainmeters, by contrast, are relatively rare. The Observatory also maintains two gas detectors at Mokuʻāweoweo, Mauna Loa's summit caldera, as well as a publicly accessible live webcam and occasional screenings by interferometric synthetic aperture radar imaging. The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along
3591-580: A tectonic plate can shift direction comparatively suddenly. A look at the USGS map on the origin of the Hawaiian Islands clearly shows this "spearpoint". In a more recent study, Sharp and Clague interpret the bend as starting at about 50 million years ago. They also conclude that the bend formed from a "traditional" cause—a change in the direction of motion of the Pacific plate. However, recent research shows that
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#17328453196423762-494: A vowel. The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants, as in the following chart. This writing system was developed by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826. It was the first thing they ever printed in Hawaiʻi, on January 7, 1822, and it originally included the consonants B, D, R, T, and V, in addition to the current ones ( H, K, L, M, N, P, W ), and it had F, G, S, Y and Z for "spelling foreign words". The initial printing also showed
3933-502: A way to communicate among themselves. Pidgin eventually made its way off the plantation and into the greater community, where it is still used to this day. The Hawaiian language takes its name from the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago, Hawaii ( Hawaiʻi in the Hawaiian language). The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members. They wrote it as "Owhyhee" or "Owhyee". It
4104-493: Is Palakila , but retaining "foreign letters" it is Barazila . Another example is Gibraltar , written as Kipalaleka or Gibaraleta . While [z] and [ɡ] are not regarded as Hawaiian sounds, [b] , [ɹ] , and [t] were represented in the original alphabet, so the letters ( b , r , and t ) for the latter are not truly "non-Hawaiian" or "foreign", even though their post-1826 use in published matter generally marked words of foreign origin. ʻOkina ( ʻoki 'cut' + -na '-ing')
4275-510: Is a Polynesian language and critically endangered language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaiʻi , the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed . Hawaiian, along with English , is an official language of the US state of Hawaiʻi . King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840. In 1896,
4446-404: Is a 60 km (37 mi) rift trending southwest from the caldera to the sea and a further 40 km (25 mi) underwater, with a prominent 40° directional change along its length; this rift zone is historically active across most of its length. The second, northeastern rift zone extends towards Hilo and is historically active across only the first 20 km (12 mi) of its length, with
4617-462: Is a combination of charter, public, and private schools. K–6 schools operate under coordinated governance of the Department of Education and the charter school, while the pre-K–12 laboratory system is governed by the Department of Education, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , and the charter school. Over 80% of graduates from these laboratory schools attend college, some of which include Ivy-League schools. Hawaiian
4788-465: Is also the focal point for its two prominent rift zones , marked on the surface by well-preserved, relatively recent lava flows (easily seen in satellite imagery) and linearly arranged fracture lines intersected by cinder and splatter cones . These rift zones are deeply set structures, driven by dike intrusions along a decollement fault that is believed to reach down all the way to the volcano's base, 12 to 14 km (7 to 9 mi) deep. The first
4959-412: Is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department. This law established English as the medium of instruction for
5130-433: Is invisible even underwater: its mass depresses the crust beneath it by another 8 km (5 mi), in the shape of an inverse mountain, meaning the total height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about 17,170 m (56,000 ft). Mauna Loa is a typical shield volcano in form, taking the shape of a long, broad dome extending down to the ocean floor whose slopes are about 12° at their steepest,
5301-459: Is more commonly spoken in Hawaiʻi than Hawaiian. Some linguists, as well as many locals, argue that Hawaiian Pidgin is a dialect of American English. Born from the increase of immigrants from Japan, China, Puerto Rico, Korea, Portugal, Spain and the Philippines, the pidgin creole language was a necessity in the plantations. Hawaiian and immigrant laborers as well as the luna , or overseers, found
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5472-549: Is not recorded, called "ragsdale". Although Wilkes thought he was almost to the summit, the guides knew they were less than halfway up. Since there was no water at Sunday Station, porters had to be sent back ten miles (16 km) to a lava tube on ʻAinapō Trail which had a known supply. After an entire day replenishing stocks, they continued up to a second camp they called "Recruiting Station" at about 9,000 feet (2,700 m) elevation. After another full day's hike they established "Flag Station" on December 22, and by this time were on
5643-413: Is now an authorized course in the Department of Education language curriculum, though not all schools offer the language. There are two kinds of Hawaiian-immersion medium schools: K–12 total Hawaiian-immersion schools, and grades 7–12 partial Hawaiian immersion schools, the later having some classes are taught in English and others are taught in Hawaiian. One of the main focuses of Hawaiian-medium schools
5814-443: Is only the latest of several calderas that have formed and reformed over the volcano's life. It was created between 1,000 and 1,500 years ago by a large eruption from Mauna Loa's northeast rift zone, which emptied out a shallow magma chamber beneath the summit and collapsed it into its present form. Additionally, two smaller pit craters lie southwest of the caldera, named Lua Hou (New Pit) and Lua Hohonu (Deep Pit). Mauna Loa's summit
5985-576: Is pronounced. Elbert & Pukui's Hawaiian Grammar says "The glottal stop, ‘, is made by closing the glottis or space between the vocal cords, the result being something like the hiatus in English oh-oh ." As early as 1823, the missionaries made some limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop, but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet. In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used it to distinguish koʻu ('my') from kou ('your'). In 1864, William DeWitt Alexander published
6156-427: Is speculated that extensive phreatomagmatic activity occurred during this time, contributing extensively to ash deposits on the summit. To have reached its enormous size within its relatively short (geologically speaking) 600,000 to 1,000,000 years of life, Mauna Loa would logically have had to have grown extremely rapidly through its developmental history, and extensive charcoal -based radiocarbon dating (perhaps
6327-417: Is still visible today. The damage was so extensive that the headwall of the damage likely intersected its southwestern rift zone. There is very little movement there today, a consequence of the volcano's geometry. Mauna Loa is tall enough to have experienced glaciation during the last ice age, 25,000 to 15,000 years ago. Unlike Mauna Kea, on which extensive evidence of glaciation remains even today, Mauna Loa
6498-402: Is the modern Hawaiian name for the symbol (a letter) that represents the glottal stop . It was formerly known as ʻuʻina ("snap"). For examples of the ʻokina, consider the Hawaiian words Hawaiʻi and Oʻahu (often simply Hawaii and Oahu in English orthography). In Hawaiian, these words are pronounced [hʌˈʋʌi.ʔi] and [oˈʔʌ.hu] , and are written with an ʻokina where the glottal stop
6669-443: Is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study". They recognized that Niʻihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways. Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by Newbrand (1951) . (See Hawaiian phonological processes ) Friction has developed between those on Niʻihau that speak Hawaiian as a first language, and those who speak Hawaiian as a second language, especially those educated by
6840-489: Is the only area in the world where Hawaiian is the first language and English is a foreign language. The isolated island of Niʻihau , located off the southwest coast of Kauai , is the one island where Hawaiian (more specifically a local dialect of Hawaiian known as Niihau dialect ) is still spoken as the language of daily life. Elbert & Pukui (1979 :23) states that "[v]ariations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied", and that "[t]he dialect of Niʻihau
7011-579: Is the only college in the United States of America that offers a master's and doctorate's degree in an Indigenous language. Programs offered at The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language are known collectively as the "Hilo model" and has been imitated by the Cherokee immersion program and several other Indigenous revitalization programs. Since 1921, the University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa and all of
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7182-559: Is the only known volcano in the chain in the submarine pre-shield stage . The second part of the chain is composed of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , collectively referred to as the Leeward isles , the constituents of which are between 7.2 and 27.7 million years old. Erosion has long since overtaken volcanic activity at these islands, and most of them are atolls, atoll islands, and extinct islands. They contain many of
7353-410: Is to teach the form and structure of the Hawaiian language by modeling sentences as a "pepeke", meaning squid in Hawaiian. In this case the pepeke is a metaphor that features the body of a squid with the three essential parts: the poʻo (head), the ʻawe (tentacles) and the piko (where the poʻo and ʻawe meet) representing how a sentence is structured. The poʻo represents the predicate, the piko representing
7524-411: Is usually followed by flank eruptions up to a few months later, and although Mauna Loa is historically less active than that of its neighbor Kilauea, it tends to produce greater volumes of lava over shorter periods of time. Most eruptions are centered at either the summit or either of its two major rift zones ; within the last two hundred years, 38 percent of eruptions occurred at the summit, 31 percent at
7695-403: Is written "Oh-Why-hee" on the first map of Sandwich Islands engraved by Tobias Conrad Lotter [ de ] in 1781. Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling. The initial "O" in the name "Oh-Why-hee" is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a copula form, ʻo , immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian,
7866-628: The Aleutian Trench off the coast of the Kamchatka peninsula in the far northwest Pacific to the Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount (formerly Lōʻihi), the youngest volcano in the chain, which lies about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of the Island of Hawaiʻi . The chain can be divided into three subsections. The first, the Hawaiian archipelago (also known as the Windward isles ), consists of
8037-514: The Cenozoic Era. However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well understood and extensively studied, the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic. Mauna Loa is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi . The oldest volcano on the island, Kohala , is more than a million years old, and Kīlauea , the youngest, is believed to be between 210,000 and 280,000 years of age. Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Lōʻihi) on
8208-718: The College of Hawaiian Language at the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo . The university sponsors a Hawaiian Language Lexicon Committee ( Kōmike Huaʻōlelo Hou ) which coins words for concepts that historically have not existed in the language, like "computer" and "cell phone". These words are generally not incorporated into the Niʻihau dialect, which often coins its own words organically. Some new words are Hawaiianized versions of English words, and some are composed of Hawaiian roots and unrelated to English sounds. The Hawaiian medium education system
8379-567: The Hawaii hotspot , which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian Island chain over tens of millions of years. The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one million years from now, at which point it will become extinct. Mauna Loa's most recent eruption began on November 27, 2022, and ended on December 13, 2022. It
8550-684: The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912. Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory , and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , both located near the mountain's summit. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and portions of the southeastern and southwestern flanks of the volcano, and also incorporates Kīlauea , a separate volcano. Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa
8721-581: The Republic of Hawaii passed Act 57, an English-only law which subsequently banned Hawaiian language as the medium on instruction from publicly funded schools and promoted strict physical punishment for children caught speaking the Hawaiian language in schools. The Hawaiian language was not again allowed to be used as a medium of instruction in Hawai’i’s public schools until 1987, a span of 91 years. The number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during
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#17328453196428892-404: The pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation, Mauna Loa would have started as a submarine volcano , gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt before emerging from the sea through a series of surtseyan eruptions about 400,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano has remained active, with a history of effusive and explosive eruptions, including 34 eruptions since
9063-399: The 1855 flows being particularly extensive. 1859 marked the largest of the three historical flows that have been centered on Mauna Loa's northwestern flank, producing a long lava flow that reached the ocean on Hawaii island's west coast, north of Kīholo Bay . An eruption in 1868 occurred alongside the enormous 1868 Hawaii earthquake , a magnitude eight event that claimed 77 lives and remains
9234-474: The 19th. Most of these stories agree that the Hawaiian volcano goddess , Pele , resides in Halemaʻumaʻu on Kilauea; however a few place her home at Mauna Loa's summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo, and the mythos in general associates her with all volcanic activity on the island. Regardless, Kīlauea's lack of a geographic outline and strong volcanic link to Mauna Loa led to it being considered an offshoot of Mauna Loa by
9405-454: The 9th, and the third fissure's lava fountains also began to grow shorter. On the 10th, the lava fountains were replaced by a lava pond, and the stalled flow front was declared to no longer be a threat. Based on these factors and data on past eruptions, the HVO determined that the eruption may end soon and reduced the volcano alert level from Warning to Watch at 2:35 pm on the 10th. However, there
9576-574: The Ancient Hawaiians, meaning much of the mythos now associated with Kīlauea was originally directed at Mauna Loa proper as well. Ancient Hawaiians constructed an extensive trail system on Hawaiʻi island, today known as the Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail . The network consisted of short trailheads servicing local areas along the main roads and more extensive networks within and around agricultural centers. The positioning of
9747-442: The Hawaiian and Society Islands. Jack H. Ward (1962) conducted a study using basic words and short utterances to determine the level of comprehension between different Polynesian languages. The mutual intelligibility of Hawaiian was found to be 41.2% with Marquesan, 37.5% with Tahitian, 25.5% with Samoan and 6.4% with Tongan. In 1778, British explorer James Cook made Europe's initial, recorded first contact with Hawaiʻi, beginning
9918-481: The Hawaiian chain and evidence of two such giant tsunami events: 200,000 years ago, Molokaʻi experienced a 75 m (246 ft) tsunami, and 100,000 years ago a megatsunami 325 m (1,066 ft) high struck Lānaʻi . A more recent example of the risks associated with slumps occurred in 1975 , when the Hilina Slump suddenly lurched forward several meters, triggering a 7.2 M w earthquake and
10089-453: The Hawaiian islands also took on a few native crew members who brought the Hawaiian language into new territory. Hawaiians took these nautical jobs because their traditional way of life changed due to plantations, and although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers to establish any viable speech communities abroad, they still had a noticeable presence. One of them, a boy in his teens known as Obookiah ( ʻŌpūkahaʻia ), had
10260-535: The Hawaiian islands is hula . Nathaniel B. Emerson notes that "It kept the communal imagination in living touch with the nation's legendary past". The islanders' connection with their stories is argued to be one reason why Captain James Cook received a pleasant welcome. Marshall Sahlins has observed that Hawaiian folktales began bearing similar content to those of the Western world in the eighteenth century. He argues this
10431-471: The Hawaiian language revitalization have preferred to use this symbol, the ʻokina , to better represent spoken Hawaiian. Nonetheless, excluding the ʻokina may facilitate interface with English-oriented media, or even be preferred stylistically by some Hawaiian speakers, in homage to 19th century written texts. So there is variation today in the use of this symbol. The ʻokina is written in various ways for electronic uses: Because many people who want to write
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#173284531964210602-498: The Hawaiian language was accelerated by the coup that overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and dethroned the existing Hawaiian queen. Thereafter, a law was instituted that required English as the main language of school instruction. The law cited is identified as Act 57, sec. 30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawaiʻi: The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it
10773-617: The Japanese would use it to launch a bombing run on the island. However, as flows from the eruption rapidly spread down the volcano's flank and threatened the ʻOlaʻa flume , Mountain View 's primary water source , the United States Army Air Force decided to drop its own bombs on the island in the hopes of redirecting the flows away from the flume; sixteen bombs weighing between 300 and 600 lb (136 and 272 kg) each were dropped on
10944-600: The North American west coast, Cook returned to the island in 1779. On his second visit John Ledyard , a corporal of the Royal Marines aboard HMS Resolution , proposed and received approval for an expedition to the summit Mauna Loa to learn "about that part of the island, particularly the peak, the tip of which is generally covered with snow, and had excited great curiosity." Using a compass, Ledyard and small group of ships' mates and native attendants attempted to make
11115-537: The University of Hawaiʻi Community Colleges also offer Hawaiian language courses to students for credit. The university now also offers free online courses not for credit, along with a few other websites and apps such as Duolingo . Hawaiians had no written language prior to Western contact, except for petroglyph symbols. The modern Hawaiian alphabet, ka pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi , is based on the Latin script . Hawaiian words end only in vowels, and every consonant must be followed by
11286-429: The aid of a telescope and ascertained it and Kea to be "perhaps 15,000 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea"; they did not, however, attempt to climb the volcano itself. It is sometimes reported that the missionary Joseph Goodrich reached the summit around this time, but he never claimed this himself, though he did summit Mauna Kea and describe Mokuʻāweoweo with the aid of another telescope. The next successful ascent
11457-625: The archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa - Tonga . Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian Islands. Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state: Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between
11628-446: The area in boats reported unusually turbulent water and occasional floating blocks of hardened lava. Further eruptions occurred in 1879 and then twice in 1880, the latter of which extended into 1881 and came within the present boundaries of the island's largest city, Hilo ; however, at the time, the settlement was a shore-side village located further down the volcano's slope, and so was unaffected. Mauna Loa continued its activity, and of
11799-467: The bend in the Emperor chain to date. In addition to previous interpretations of the cause of the bend in the seamount chain, Hu et al. have proposed a close relationship between mantle plume migration and change in plate tectonic motion. Expanding on previous models, it has been interpreted that the Pacific Plate's motion was predominantly in the northern direction prior to 47 million years ago. Traditionally,
11970-407: The bend to be attributed completely to hotspot motion, the pacific plate would have to remain stationary from 81 Ma to 43 Ma. Thus, is not true as magnetic anomalies on the pacific plate indicate motion of around 60 mm per year during that period. This model consisting of a change in plate motion combined with small north-south motions of the hotspot seems to be the best supported theory concerning
12141-427: The bend was caused only by a change in the Pacific plate motion. Second, that the bend was caused by hotspot movement only. In 2004 geologist Yaoling Niu proposed a model that attributed the bend largely to a change in plate motion along with some motion in the hotspot. Niu proposes that the bend starts at 43 Ma which is caused by a "trench jam". This "trench jam" is caused by the arrival of the Emperor chain seamounts at
12312-548: The case; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea, but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption, and the 2022 eruption of Mauna Loa occurred during an eruption of Kīlauea. Geologists have suggested that "pulses" of magma entering Mauna Loa's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions. Mauna Loa is slumping eastward along its southwestern rift zone, leveraging its mass into Kīlauea and driving
12483-470: The city at nighttime. However, the flow got no closer, as two natural levees further up its pathway consequently broke and diverted active flows. From 1985 to 2022, the volcano had its longest period of quiet in recorded history. Magma had been accumulating beneath Mauna Loa since the 1984 eruption, and the U.S. Geological Survey in February 2021 reported that although an eruption "did not appear to be imminent,"
12654-423: The clock to the point where the experiments could begin. However, the high winds made so much noise that the ticks could often not be heard, and varied the temperature to make measurements inaccurate. Grass had to be painstakingly brought from the lowest elevations for insulation to get accurate measurements. Hawaiian language Hawaiian ( ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , pronounced [ʔoːˈlɛlo həˈvɐjʔi] )
12825-530: The crater's edge, secured by lava blocks. The next morning they were unable to start a fire using friction due to the thin air at that altitude, and sent for matches. By this time, the naval officers and Hawaiians could not agree on terms to continue hiring porters, so sailors and marines were ordered from the ships. Dr. Judd traveled between the summit and the Recruiting Station to tend the many who suffered from altitude sickness or had worn out their shoes on
12996-411: The creation of a standard spelling that should be as easy to master as possible. The orthography created by the missionaries was so straightforward that literacy spread very quickly among the adult population; at the same time, the Mission set more and more schools for children. In 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals. The missionaries also played
13167-438: The department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools . This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui , who
13338-575: The efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family. In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawaiʻi commissioned Mary Pukui and Samuel Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work or starting from scratch. Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than
13509-635: The eruption. The eruption remained confined to the caldera until approximately 6:30 am HST on November 28, when the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory observed that the eruption had migrated from the summit to the Northeast Rift Zone. Three fissures were initially observed in the rift zone, with the first two becoming inactive by 1:30 PM on the 28th. Before becoming inactive, the two upper fissures fed lava flows that moved downslope, however those flows stalled approximately 11 miles (18 km) from Saddle Road . Lava fountains were also observed emanating from
13680-445: The eruptions that occurred in 1887, 1892, 1896, 1899, 1903 (twice), 1907, 1914, 1916, 1919, and 1926, three (in 1887, 1919, and 1926) were partially subaerial . The 1926 eruption in particular is noteworthy for having inundated a village near Hoʻōpūloa, destroying 12 houses, a church, and a small harbor. After an event in 1933, Mauna Loa's 1935 eruption caused a public crisis when its flows started to head towards Hilo. A bombing operation
13851-450: The established ʻAinapō Trail. Wilkes did not want to head back downhill so he blazed his own way through dense forest directed by a compass. The Hawaiians were offended by the waste of sacred trees which did not help morale. At about 6,000 feet (1,800 m) elevation they established a camp called "Sunday Station" at the edge of the forest. Two guides joined them at Sunday Station: Keaweehu, "the bird-catcher" and another whose Hawaiian name
14022-423: The exception of Niʻihau). Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well. In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite
14193-405: The expedition as a translator. Wilkes sailed to Hilo on the island of Hawaiʻi and decided to climb Mauna Loa first, since it looked easier than Mauna Kea . On December 14 he hired about 200 porters, but after he left he realized only about half the equipment had been taken, so he had to hire more Hawaiians at higher pay. When they reached Kīlauea after two days, their guide Puhano headed off to
14364-516: The first well-documented eruption in 1843. Mauna Loa is the largest active volcano on Earth and the planet's third largest volcano behind Pūhāhonu , which is also in the Hawaiian chain, and the Tamu Massif . It covers a land area of 5,271 km (2,035 sq mi) and spans a maximum width of 120 km (75 mi). Consisting of approximately 65,000 to 80,000 km (15,600 to 19,200 cu mi) of solid rock, it makes up more than half of
14535-406: The fissures, with the tallest reaching up to 200 feet (61 m) into the air. As lava flows from the third fissure expanded, they cut off the road to the Mauna Loa Observatory at approximately 8 pm on the 28th. Activity in the rift zone continued on the 29th, with a fourth fissure that opened at approximately 7:30 pm on the 28th joining the third in releasing lava flows. The main front of
14706-422: The five vowel letters ( A, E, I, O, U ) and seven of the short diphthongs ( AE, AI, AO, AU, EI, EU, OU ). In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant allophones (called "interchangeable letters"), enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one-symbol-one- phoneme , and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn
14877-553: The force pulling the Pacific Plate to the north was attributed to the Izanagi - Pacific Ridge subduction zone. However, in a 2021 study, Hu et al. proposed that this subduction zone was not a strong enough force to have been pulling the Pacific Plate on its own. Instead, they introduced the concept that there was an intra-oceanic subduction zone involving the Kronotsky and Olyutorsky arcs. According to their findings, this subduction zone played
15048-421: The glaciation of Mauna Loa during the last ice age, raising the distinct possibility that it is the product of phreatomagmatic interaction between the long-gone glaciers and Mauna Loa's eruptive activities. Studies have shown that a cycle occurs in which volcanic activity at the summit is dominant for several hundred years, after which activity shifts to the rift zones for several more centuries, and then back to
15219-525: The god Lono's return at the time of the Makahiki festival. In 1820, Protestant missionaries from New England arrived in Hawaiʻi, and in a few years converted the chiefs to Congregational Protestantism, who in turn converted their subjects. To the missionaries, the thorough Christianization of the kingdom necessitated a complete translation of the Bible to Hawaiian, a previously unwritten language, and therefore
15390-416: The government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at
15561-415: The hotspot itself may have moved with time. Some evidence comes from analysis of the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite in ancient lava flows sampled at four seamounts: this evidence from paleomagnetism shows a more complex history than the commonly accepted view of a stationary hotspot. If the hotspot had remained above a fixed mantle plume during the past 80 million years,
15732-537: The island occurred at Kīlauea in 1924, when an unusually explosive eruption hurled rocks at an onlooker), property damage due to inundation by lava is a common and costly hazard. Hawaiian -type eruptions usually produce extremely slow-moving flows that advance at walking pace, presenting little danger to human life, but this is not strictly the case; Mauna Loa's 1950 eruption emitted as much lava in three weeks as Kīlauea's recent eruption produced in three years and reached sea level within four hours of its start, overrunning
15903-582: The island's flank is even younger, but has yet to breach the surface of the Pacific Ocean. At 1 million to 600,000 years of age, Mauna Loa is the second youngest of the five volcanoes on the island, making it the third youngest volcano in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain , a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench in Russia . Following
16074-442: The island, beyond a few fragmentary accounts dating to the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Possible eruptions occurred around 1730 and 1750 and sometime during 1780 and 1803. A June 1832 eruption was witnessed by a missionary on Maui , but the 190 km (118 mi) between the two islands and lack of apparent geological evidence have cast this testimony in doubt. Thus the first entirely confirmed historically witnessed eruption
16245-450: The island, but produced little effect. Eventually, the eruption ceased on its own. Following a 1949 event, the next major eruption at Mauna Loa occurred in 1950. Originating from the volcano's southwestern rift zone, the eruption remains the largest rift event in the volcano's modern history, lasting 23 days, emitting 376 million cubic meters of lava, and reaching the 24 km (15 mi) distant ocean within 3 hours. The 1950 eruption
16416-489: The islands comprising the U.S. state of Hawaii . As it is the closest to the hotspot, this volcanically active region is the youngest part of the chain, with ages ranging from 400,000 years to 5.1 million years. The island of Hawaiʻi is composed of five volcanoes, of which four ( Kilauea , Mauna Loa , Hualalai , and Mauna Kea ) are active. The island of Maui has one active volcano, Haleakalā . Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount continues to grow offshore of Hawaiʻi island, and
16587-478: The islands of the Hawaiian chain northwest to Kure Atoll , and the Emperor Seamounts: together they form a vast underwater mountain region of islands and intervening seamounts , atolls , shallows, banks and reefs along a line trending southeast to northwest beneath the northern Pacific Ocean. The seamount chain, containing over 80 identified undersea volcanoes, stretches about 6,200 km (3,900 mi) from
16758-477: The journey was arduous and required several days and many porters, ancient Hawaiians likely made the journey during eruptions to leave offerings and prayers to honor Pele, much as they did at Halemaʻumaʻu, neighboring Kilauea's more active and more easily accessible caldera. Several camps established along the way supplied water and food for travelers. James Cook 's third voyage was the first to make landfall on Hawaiʻi island, in 1778, and following adventures along
16929-456: The language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian-language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to reintroduce the Hawaiian language for future generations. The ʻAha Pūnana Leo 's Hawaiian language preschools in Hilo, Hawaii , have received international recognition. The local National Public Radio station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day" and
17100-482: The language was "soon destined to extinction." When Hawaiian King David Kalākaua took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. When his wife, Queen Kapiʻolani , and his sister, Princess (later Queen) Liliʻuokalani , took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Liliʻuokalani's composition " Aloha ʻOe " was already a famous song in the U.S. The decline of
17271-430: The language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that. The first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. However, the language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO. A creole language , Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE),
17442-495: The largest earthquake ever to hit the island. Following further activity in 1871, Mauna Loa experienced nearly continuous activity from August 1872 through 1877, a long-lasting and voluminous eruption lasting approximately 1,200 days and never moving beyond its summit. A short single-day eruption in 1877 was unusual in that it took place underwater, in Kealakekua Bay , and within a mile of the shoreline; curious onlookers approaching
17613-476: The largest such protected areas in the world. The proclamation limits tourism to the area, and called for a phase-out of fishing by 2011. The oldest and most heavily eroded part of the chain are the Emperor seamounts, which are 39 to 85 million years old. The Emperor and Hawaiian chains form an angle of about 120°. This bend was long attributed to a relatively sudden change of 60° in the direction of plate motion, but research conducted in 2003 suggests that it
17784-419: The latitude as recorded by the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite (paleolatitude) should be constant for each sample; this should also signify original cooling at the same latitude as the current location of the Hawaiian hotspot. Instead of remaining constant, the paleolatitudes of the Emperor Seamounts show a change from north to south, with decreasing age. The paleomagnetic data from
17955-498: The latter eastward at a rate of about 10 cm (4 in) per year; the interaction between the two volcanoes in this manner has generated a number of large earthquakes in the past, and has resulted in a significant area of debris off Kīlauea's seaward flank known as the Hilina Slump . A system of older faults exists on the southeastern side of Mauna Loa that likely formed before Kilauea became large enough to impede Mauna Loa's slump,
18126-497: The latter to be taller based on its larger snow cap. The feat of summitting Mauna Loa was not to be repeated for forty years. The Hawaiian Islands were the site of fervent missionary work, with the first group of missionaries arrived at Honolulu in 1820 and the second in 1823. Some of these missionaries left for Hawaiʻi island, and spent ten weeks traveling around it, preaching at local villages and climbing Kilauea, from which one of its members, William Ellis , observed Mauna Loa with
18297-451: The lowest and northernmost of which, the Kaoiki fault, remains an active earthquake center today. The west side of Mauna Loa, meanwhile, is unimpeded in movement, and indeed is believed to have undergone a massive slump collapse between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, the residue from which, consisting of a scattering of debris up to several kilometers wide and up to 50 km (31 mi) distant,
18468-399: The monitoring of which was the primary and often only warning mechanism in the past and which remains viable today. Seismic stations have been maintained on Hawaiʻi since the Observatory's inception, but these were concentrated primarily on Kīlauea, with coverage on Mauna Loa improving only slowly through the 20th century. Following the invention of modern monitoring equipment, the backbone of
18639-502: The most extensive such prehistorical eruptive dating on Earth) has amassed a record of almost two hundred reliably dated extant flows confirming this hypothesis. Lava samples, including those obtained by drilling projects, have been dated at least to 470,000 years ago. For technical reasons the oldest ages obtained by modern techniques at 657,000 years ago have large errors of the order of 200,000 years, as did some historic dating attempts on younger lavas making them older than
18810-459: The most northerly atolls in the world; Kure Atoll , in this group, is the northernmost atoll on Earth. On June 15, 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush issued a proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906 . The national monument, meant to protect the biodiversity of the Hawaiian isles, encompasses all of the northern isles, and is one of
18981-466: The name of the island is expressed by saying ʻO Hawaiʻi , which means "[This] is Hawaiʻi." The Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti". The spelling "why" in the name reflects the [ ʍ ] pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English (still used in parts of the English-speaking world ). Why was pronounced [ʍai] . The spelling "hee" or "ee" in the name represents
19152-459: The northeast rift zone, 25 percent at the southwest rift zone, and the remaining 6 percent from northwest vents. 40 percent of the volcano's surface consists of lavas less than a thousand years old, and 98 percent of lavas less than 10,000 years old. In addition to the summit and rift zones, Mauna Loa's northwestern flank has also been the source of three historical eruptions. The 1843 event was followed by eruptions in 1849, 1851, 1852, and 1855, with
19323-519: The northeast, and particularly Kīlauea to the east. Lavas from Mauna Kea intersect with Mauna Loa's basal flows as a consequence of Kea's older age, and Mauna Kea's original rift zones were buried beneath post-shield volcanic rocks of Mauna Loa; additionally, Mauna Kea shares Mauna Loa's gravity well, depressing the ocean crust beneath it by 6 km (4 mi). There are also a series of normal faults on Mauna Loa's northern and western slopes, between its two major rift zones, that are believed to be
19494-405: The northern subduction zone. These thick, buoyant seamounts resisted subduction and caused a reorientation of plate motion. Thus explains the sudden change in plate motion and is supported by the orientation of nearby island chains which also have a sudden bend which mirror the Emperor chain. As shown by Tarduno et al., the hotspot does show some north-south motion, but Yaoling's model shows that for
19665-507: The peak to be at least 5,600 m (18,373 ft) high based on its snow line . The next attempt to summit Mauna Loa was an expedition led by Archibald Menzies , a botanist and naturalist on the 1793 Vancouver Expedition . In February of that year Menzies, two ships' mates, and a small group of native Hawaiian attendants attempted a direct course for the summit from Kealakekua Bay , making it 26 km (16 mi) inland by their reckoning (an overestimation) before they were turned away by
19836-411: The period from the 1830s to the 1950s. English essentially displaced Hawaiian on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of the statewide population. Linguists were unsure if Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive. Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of
20007-476: The phrase "Hawaiian Language". In Hawaiian, the language is called ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , since adjectives follow nouns. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family . It is closely related to other Polynesian languages , such as Samoan , Marquesan , Tahitian , Māori , Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island ) and Tongan . According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized
20178-451: The post-shield stage. Between 11,000 and 8,000 years ago, activity was more intense than it is today. However, Mauna Loa's overall rate of growth has probably begun to slow over the last 100,000 years, and the volcano may in fact be nearing the end of its tholeiitic basalt shield-building phase. Ancient Hawaiians have been present on Hawaiʻi island for about 1,500 years, but they preserved almost no records on volcanic activity on
20349-506: The present-day monitoring system was installed on the volcano in the 1970s. Mauna Loa's July 1975 eruption was forewarned by more than a year of seismic unrest, with the HVO issuing warnings to the general public from late 1974; the 1984 eruption was similarly preceded by as much as three years of unusually high seismic activity, with volcanologists predicting an eruption within two years in 1983. The modern monitoring system on Mauna Loa consists not only of its local seismic network but also of
20520-513: The reading and writing of Hawaiian. For example, instead of spelling one and the same word as pule, bule, pure, and bure (because of interchangeable p/b and l/r ), the word is spelled only as pule . However, hundreds of words were very rapidly borrowed into Hawaiian from English, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and Syriac. Although these loan words were necessarily Hawaiianized , they often retained some of their "non-Hawaiian letters" in their published forms. For example, Brazil fully Hawaiianized
20691-617: The remainder of the volcano is hazard level three, about 15 to 20 percent of which has been covered by flows within the last 750 years. However, two sections of the volcano, the first in the Naalehu area and the second on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa's rift zone, are protected from eruptive activity by local topography, and have thus been designated hazard level 6, comparable with a similarly isolated segment on Kīlauea . Although volcanic eruptions in Hawaiʻi rarely produce casualties (the only direct historical fatality due to volcanic activity on
20862-437: The result of combined circumferential tension from the two rift zones and from added pressure due to the westward growth of neighboring Kīlauea. Because Kīlauea lacks topographical prominence and appears as a bulge on the southeastern flank of Mauna Loa, it was historically interpreted by both native Hawaiians and early geologists to be an active satellite of Mauna Loa. However, analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from
21033-454: The rough rock. Christmas Day was spent building rock walls around the camp to give some protection from the high winds and blowing snow. It took another week to bring all the equipment to the summit, including a pendulum designed for measuring slight variations in gravity. On December 31, 1840, the pre-fabricated pendulum house was assembled. Axes and chisels cut away the rock surface for the pendulum's base. It took another three days to adjust
21204-459: The same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of "Part-Hawaiian" students (i.e., children of mixed White-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910. In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian led to the adoption of English as the family language. Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with
21375-471: The seamounts of the Emperor chain suggest motion of the Hawaiian hotspot in Earth's mantle. Tarduno et al. have interpreted that the bend in the seamount chain may be caused by circulation patterns in the flowing solid mantle (mantle "wind") rather than a change in plate motion. There are two distinct interpretations for the cause of the bend in the seamounts of the Emperor chain as previously mentioned. First, that
21546-461: The second an oblong 4.2 km × 2.5 km (2.6 mi × 1.6 mi) feature; together these three craters make up the 6.2 by 2.5 km (3.9 by 1.6 mi) summit caldera Mokuʻāweoweo, so named for the Hawaiian ʻāweoweo fish ( Priacanthus meeki ), purportedly due to the resemblance of its eruptive fires to the coloration of the fish. Mokuʻāweoweo's caldera floor lies between 170 and 50 m (558 and 164 ft) beneath its rim and it
21717-405: The shallower parts of the rift zone drive rift activity; a similar mechanism has been proposed for neighboring Kīlauea . Earlier models, based on Mauna Loa's 1975 and 1984 eruptions, made a similar prediction, placing the chamber at 3 km (1.9 mi) deep in roughly the same geographic position. Mauna Loa has complex interactions with its neighbors, Hualālai to the northwest, Mauna Kea to
21888-439: The shores where food and water were plentiful. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source. Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem, and caused many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species, as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates. The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change
22059-436: The slow buildup of lava under the volcano's surface. These models predict a 1.1 km (1 mi) wide magma chamber located at a depth of about 4.7 km (3 mi), 0.5 km (0 mi) below sea level , near the southeastern margin of Mokuʻāweoweo. This shallow magma chamber is significantly higher-placed than Mauna Loa's rift zones, suggesting magma intrusions into the deeper parts and occasional dike injections into
22230-563: The sounds [hi] , or [i] . Putting the parts together, O-why-(h)ee reflects [o-hwai-i] , a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, [ʔo həwɐiʔi] . American missionaries bound for Hawaiʻi used the phrases "Owhihe Language" and "Owhyhee language" in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawaiʻi. They still used such phrases as late as March 1822. However, by July 1823, they had begun using
22401-495: The sponsor made only one response and sent the wrong font size (pica instead of small pica). Thus, they could not print ā, ē, ī, ō, nor ū (at the right size), even though they wanted to. Hawaiian %E2%80%93 Emperor seamount chain The Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain is a mostly undersea mountain range in the Pacific Ocean that reaches above sea level in Hawaii . It is composed of the Hawaiian ridge , consisting of
22572-589: The subject and the ʻawe representing the object. Hawaiian immersion schools teach content that both adheres to state standards and stresses Hawaiian culture and values. The existence of immersion schools in Hawaiʻi has developed the opportunity for intergenerational transmission of Hawaiian at home. The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language is a college at the University of Hawaii at Hilo dedicated to providing courses and programs entirely in Hawaiian. It educates and provides training for teachers and school administrators of Hawaiian medium schools. It
22743-403: The summit again. Two cycles have been clearly identified, each lasting 1,500–2,000 years. This cyclical behavior is unique to Mauna Loa among the Hawaiian volcanoes. Between about 7,000 and 6,000 years ago Mauna Loa was largely inactive. The cause of this cessation in activity is not known, and no known similar hiatus has been found at other Hawaiian volcanoes except for those currently in
22914-402: The surface area of the island of Hawaiʻi. Combining the volcano's extensive submarine flanks (5,000 m (16,400 ft) to the sea floor) and 4,170 m (13,680 ft) subaerial height, Mauna Loa rises 9,170 m (30,085 ft) from base to summit, greater than the 8,848 m or 29,029 ft elevation of Mount Everest from sea level to its summit. In addition, much of the mountain
23085-461: The thickness of the forest. On a second visit by the expedition to the island in January of the next year Menzies was placed in charge of exploring the island interior, and after traversing the flanks of Hualālai he and his party arrived at the high plateau separating the two volcanoes. Menzies decided to make a second attempt (above the objections of the accompanying island chief), but again his progress
23256-445: The third fissure's lava flows also continued to move, and was located approximately 2.7 miles (4.3 km) from Saddle Road at 7 am on December 2. As the eruption approached its second week, indications of a reduction in activity began to appear. On December 8, the lava flows feeding the main front began to drain, and the main flow front stalled approximately 1.7 miles (2.7 km) from Saddle Road. The flows continued to drain on
23427-419: The time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home. Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language", reducing Hawaiian to the status of an extra language, subject to approval by
23598-438: The trail to retrieve firewood and the gear abandoned on the trail the day before. After another day's climb, nine men reached the rim of Mokuʻāweoweo. They could not find a way down its steep sides so chose a smooth place on the rim for the camp site, at coordinates 19°27′59″N 155°34′54″W / 19.46639°N 155.58167°W / 19.46639; -155.58167 . Their tent was pitched within 60 feet (18 m) of
23769-495: The trails was practical, connecting living areas to farms and ports, and regions to resources, with a few upland sections reserved for gathering and most lines marked well enough to remain identifiable long after regular use had ended. One of these trails, the Ainapo Trail , ascended from the village of Kapāpala over 3,400 m (11,155 ft) in about 56 km (35 mi) and ended at Mokuʻāweoweo at Mauna Loa's summit. Although
23940-402: The two volcanoes show that they have separate magma chambers , and are thus distinct. Nonetheless, their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other. When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952, Mauna Loa became active, and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974, the reverse was true. This is not always
24111-422: The village of Hoʻokena Mauka and a major highway on the way there. An earlier eruption in 1926 overran the village of Hoʻōpūloa Makai, and Hilo , partly built on lavas from the 1880–81 eruption, is at risk from future eruptions. The 1984 eruption nearly reached the city, but stopped short after the flow was redirected by upstream topography. A potentially greater hazard at Mauna Loa is a sudden, massive collapse of
24282-542: The volcano and subsidence of the seafloor cause the volcano to gradually diminish. As the volcano sinks and erodes, it first becomes an atoll island and then an atoll . Further subsidence causes the volcano to sink below the sea surface, becoming a seamount and/or a guyot . From the 1960s to the 1980s, the seamounts were intensively bottom trawled . Trawling has continued since then at lower rates, particularly by Japanese ships seeking Pentaceros wheeleri . The North Pacific Fisheries Commission regulates fishing in
24453-461: The volcano had shown elevated signs of unrest since 2019, including a slight increase in the rate of inflation at the volcano's summit. The quiet period ended at 11:30 pm HST on November 27, 2022, when an eruption began at the volcano's summit in Moku‘āweoweo (Mauna Loa's caldera). Lava flows emanating from the caldera became visible from Kailua-Kona in the hours immediately following
24624-575: The volcano's flanks, like the one that struck the volcano's west flank between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago and formed the present-day Kealakekua Bay . Deep fault lines are a common feature on Hawaiian volcanoes, allowing large portions of their flanks to gradually slide downwards and forming structures like the Hilina Slump and the ancient Ninole Hills ; large earthquakes could trigger rapid flank collapses along these lines, creating massive landslides and possibly triggering equally large tsunamis . Undersea surveys have revealed numerous landslides along
24795-610: The volcano's prehistoric slump. These are followed by two units of lava flows separated by an intervening ash layer known as the Pāhala ash layer: the older Kahuka basalt, sparsely exposed on the lower southwest rift, and the younger and far more widespread Kaʻu basalt, which appear more widely on the volcano. The Pāhala ashes themselves were produced over a long period of time circa 13 to 30 thousand years ago, although heavy vitrification and interactions with post- and pre- creation flows has hindered exact dating. Their age roughly corresponds to
24966-440: The way both up and down, and after a difficult and distressing descent began collating his samples; he planned to return to England, but instead several months later his body was discovered mysteriously crushed in a pit beside a dead wild boar Isidor Löwenstern successfully climbed Mauna Loa in February 1839, only the third successful climb in 60 years. The United States Exploring Expedition led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes
25137-537: The west, could explain the large bend present in the Hawaiian - Emperor Seamount Chain. The chain has been produced by the movement of the ocean crust over the Hawaiʻi hotspot , an upwelling of hot rock from the Earth's mantle . As the oceanic crust moves the volcanoes farther away from their source of magma, their eruptions become less frequent and less powerful until they eventually cease altogether. At that point erosion of
25308-470: The ʻAinapō Trail. Most of the porters were sent back down to get another load. At the Flag Station Wilkes and his eight remaining men built a circular wall of lava rocks and covered the shelter with a canvas tent. A snowstorm was in progress and several suffered from altitude sickness . That night (December 23), the snow on the canvas roof caused it to collapse. At daylight some of the group went down
25479-434: The ʻokina are not familiar with these specific characters and/or do not have access to the appropriate fonts and input and display systems, it is sometimes written with more familiar and readily available characters: A modern Hawaiian name for the macron symbol is kahakō ( kaha 'mark' + kō 'long'). It was formerly known as mekona (Hawaiianization of macron ). It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like
25650-467: Was a January 1843 event; since that time Mauna Loa has erupted 32 times. Historical eruptions at Mauna Loa are typically Hawaiian in character and rarely violent, starting with the emergence of lava fountains over a several kilometer long rift colloquially known as the "curtain of fire" (often, but not always, propagating from Mauna Loa's summit) and eventually concentrating at a single vent, its long-term eruptive center. Activity centered on its summit
25821-622: Was a small possibility that the eruption would continue at a very low rate. The eruption officially ended at 7:17 am on the 13th, and the HVO lowered the volcano alert level to Advisory. Mauna Loa has been designated a Decade Volcano , one of the sixteen volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. The United States Geological Survey maintains
25992-410: Was arrested by unassailable thickets. Menzies made a third attempt to summit Mauna Loa in February 1794. This time the botanist consulted King Kamehameha I for advice and learned that he could take canoes to the south and follow the ʻAinapō Trail, not knowing of its existence beforehand. Significantly better prepared, Menzies, Lieutenant Joseph Baker and Midshipman George McKenzie of Discovery , and
26163-424: Was at the time and has remained active, having grown an additional 150 to 300 m (492 to 984 ft) in height since then and covering any glacial deposits beneath new flows; strata of that age don't occur until at least 2,000 m (6,562 ft) down from the volcano's summit, too low for glacial growth. Mauna Loa also lacks its neighbor's summit permafrost region, although sporadic ice persists in places. It
26334-498: Was caused by the timing of Captain Cook's arrival, which was coincidentally when the indigenous Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival , which is the annual celebration of the harvest in honor of the god Lono . The celebration lasts for the entirety of the rainy season . It is a time of peace with much emphasis on amusements, food, games, and dancing. The islanders' story foretold of
26505-463: Was caused by the use of fire, but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ). Ancient Hawaiian religious practice holds that the five volcanic peaks of the island are sacred, and regards Mauna Loa, the largest of them all, with great admiration; but what mythology survives today consists mainly of oral accounts from the 18th century first compiled in
26676-456: Was comparatively less interesting. Mauna Loa's 1942 eruption occurred only four months after the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States' entry into World War II , and created a unique problem for the wartime United States. Occurring during an enforced nighttime blackout on the island, the eruption's luminosity forced the government to issue a gag order on the local press, hoping to prevent news of its occurrence spreading, for fear that
26847-476: Was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 3,700 mi (6,000 km)-long Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing view states that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much, if not all of
27018-433: Was decided upon to try and divert the flows, planned out by then- lieutenant colonel George S. Patton . The bombing, conducted on December 27, was declared a success by Thomas A. Jaggar , director of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, and lava stopped flowing by January 2, 1936. However, the role the bombing played in ending the eruption has since been heavily disputed by volcanologists. A longer but summit-bound event in 1940
27189-559: Was discovered to be larger. Mauna Loa is a shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes, and a volume estimated at 18,000 cubic miles (75,000 km), although its peak is about 125 feet (38 m) lower than that of its neighbor, Mauna Kea . Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica -poor and very fluid, and tend to be non-explosive . Mauna Loa has likely been erupting for at least 700,000 years, and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago. Some dated rocks are 470,000 years old. The volcano's magma comes from
27360-551: Was enacted for the first time in any of the United States. Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry. In his Report to the Legislature for the year 1853 Richard Armstrong , the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read. Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that
27531-423: Was essentially stationary as the Pacific tectonic plate drifted in a northwesterly direction, leaving a trail of increasingly eroded volcanic islands and seamounts in its wake. An otherwise inexplicable kink in the chain marks a shift in the movement of the Pacific plate some 47 million years ago, from a northward to a more northwesterly direction, and the kink has been presented in geology texts as an example of how
27702-473: Was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays. Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian. Due in part to this systemic suppression of the language after the overthrow, Hawaiian is still considered
27873-487: Was made on January 29, 1834, by the Scottish botanist David Douglas , who also reached the summit caldera using the ʻAinapō Trail. By the time Douglas reached the summit the environment had put him under extreme duress, but he nonetheless stayed overnight to make measurements of the summit caldera's proportions and record barometric data on its height, both now known to be wildly inaccurate. Douglas collected biological samples on
28044-420: Was no loss of life, the village was permanently destroyed. After the 1950 event, Mauna Loa entered an extended period of dormancy, interrupted only by a small single-day summit event in 1975 . However, it rumbled to life again in 1984, manifesting first at Mauna Loa's summit, and then producing a narrow, channelized ʻaʻā flow that advanced downslope within 6 km (4 mi) of Hilo, close enough to illuminate
28215-458: Was not the most voluminous eruption on the volcano (the long-lived 1872–1877 event produced more than twice as much material), but it was easily one of the fastest-acting, producing the same amount of lava as the 1859 eruption in a tenth of the time. Flows overtook the village of Hoʻokena-mauka in South Kona , crossed Hawaii Route 11 , and reached the sea within four hours of eruption. Although there
28386-554: Was rebuffed by the arduous trek required (see Ascents ). After soliciting help from Lorrin A. Thurston , in 1915 he was able to persuade the US Army to construct a "simple route to the summit" for public and scientific use, a project completed in December of that year; the Observatory has maintained a presence on the volcano ever since. Eruptions on Mauna Loa are almost always preceded and accompanied by prolonged episodes of seismic activity,
28557-457: Was tasked with a vast survey of the Pacific Ocean starting in 1838. In September 1840 they arrived in Honolulu , where repairs to the ships took longer than expected. Wilkes decided to spend the winter in Hawaii and take the opportunity to explore its volcanoes while waiting for better weather to continue the expedition. King Kamehameha III assigned American medical missionary Dr. Gerrit P. Judd to
28728-487: Was the case. Some of the oldest exposed flows on Mauna Loa are the Ninole Hills on its southern flank, subaerial basalt rock dating back approximately 100 to 200 thousand years. They form a terrace against which younger flows have since banked, heavily eroded and incised against its slope in terms of direction; this is believed to be the result of a period of erosion because of a change in the direction of lava flow caused by
28899-515: Was the first eruption since 1984 . No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities, but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages, and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century. Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers, Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program, which encourages studies of the world's most dangerous volcanoes. Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by
29070-458: Was the movement of the hotspot itself that caused the bend. The issue continues to remain under academic debate. All of the volcanoes in this part of the chain have long since subsided below sea level, becoming seamounts and guyots . Many of the volcanoes are named after former emperors of Japan . The seamount chain extends to the West Pacific , and terminates at the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench ,
29241-444: Was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census. On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on Niʻihau , native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively. Niʻihau
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