110-459: For the English novelist, see Mary St Leger Kingsley . Mary Henrietta Kingsley (13 October 1862 – 3 June 1900) was an English ethnographer, writer and explorer who made numerous travels through West Africa and wrote several books on her experiences there. Historians have credited Kingsley's work with helping to shape Western perceptions of the culture of Africa and colonialism . Kingsley
220-602: A plurality of seats in parliament, and Milton Margai was re-elected as prime minister. Margai was popular among Sierra Leoneans during his time in power, mostly known for his self-effacement. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status. He based the government on the rule of law and the separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. Margai used his conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials to represent various ethnic groups. Margai employed
330-486: A brokerage style of politics, by sharing power among political parties and interest groups; especially the involvement of powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, most of whom were key allies of his government. Upon Milton Margai's unexpected death in 1964, his younger half-brother , Sir Albert Margai, was appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert's leadership was briefly challenged by Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who questioned Sir Albert's succession to
440-641: A close personal friend. Malet's The Gateless Barrier (1900) is a novel-length ghost story – an example of how, where her early novels were genteel Victorian romances, by the 1890s Malet was using the ideas of the aesthetic movement to explore more transgressive themes, such as adultery and sadism. Her later novels, such as The Survivors (1923) are proto-modernist in their explorations of marginal consciousnesses. E. F. Benson acknowledged his debt to her critical advice in his memoir Our Family Affairs . Despite her importance, Malet died in poverty in 1931. Her last novel, The Private Life of Mr. Justice Syme ,
550-643: A convert to Catholicism. Malet lived for most of her life on the Continent with the singer Gabrielle Vallings . Vallings, much younger than Malet, was the author's cousin, romantic companion and adopted daughter. The two traveled abroad frequently together, including spending significant time in France. Malet spent much of the end of her life in France where she was a part of "high literary circles." She wrote frequently during this time, often out of economic necessity. Despite her tremendous critical and economic success during
660-651: A few friends. There is little indication that Kingsley was raised Christian ; instead, she was a self-proclaimed believer with, "summed up in her own words [...] 'an utter faith in God'" and even identified strongly with what was described as 'the African religion'. She is known for criticizing Christian missionaries and their work for supplanting pre-existing African cultures without proving any material benefits in return. The 1891 England census finds Mary's mother and her two children living at 7 Mortimer Road, Cambridge , where Charles
770-594: A fitting role for English women, though this was changing under the influence of figures such as Isabella Bird and Marianne North . African women were surprised that a woman of Kingsley's age was travelling without a man, as she was frequently asked why her husband was not accompanying her. Kingsley landed in Sierra Leone on 17 August 1893 and from there travelled further to Luanda in Angola . She lived with local people, who taught her necessary surviving-skills for living in
880-409: A local African chieftain, but he retaliated, attacking the settlement, which was reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, and six white women. Black settlers were captured by unscrupulous traders and sold as slaves, and the remaining colonists were forced to arm themselves for their own protection. The 64 remaining colonists established a second Granville Town. Following
990-451: A major influence on Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure. The late nineteenth century English author George Gissing thought it 'a wooden book, without a living character or touching scene. The dialogue preposterous. So much for popular success'. On the other hand, he described her 1888 novel A Counsel of Perfection as 'not bad'. Henry James was both an admirer of Malet's writing and eventually
1100-618: A move that foreshadowed the women's suffrage movements in Britain, the heads of all households, of which a third were women, were given the right to vote. Black settlers in Sierra Leone enjoyed much more autonomy than their white equivalent in European countries. Black migrants elected different levels of political representatives, 'tithingmen', who represented each dozen settlers and 'hundreders' who represented larger amounts. This sort of representation
1210-419: A phenomenon oft-noted in the texts of Walter Benjamin . Of her method she said: "It is merely that I have the power of bringing out in my fellow-creatures, white or black, their virtues, in a way honourable to them and fortunate for me." Of her purpose she said: "[M]y motive for going to West Africa was study; this study was that of native ideas and practices in religion and law. My reason for taking up this study
SECTION 10
#17328547614231320-628: A prominent Temne chief in Kasseh who was fighting against the "hut tax". The war was later known as the Hut Tax War of 1898 . Madam Yoko ( c. 1849 –1906) was a woman of culture and ambition. She employed her capacity for friendly communications to persuade the British to give her control of the Kpaa Mende chiefdom. She used diplomacy to communicate with local chiefs who did not trust her friendship with
1430-621: A protracted civil war broke out between the government and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) rebel group. The conflict, characterized by multiple coups d'état , persisted for 11 years. Intervention by ECOMOG forces and later by the United Kingdom resulted in the defeat of the RUF in 2002, ushering in a period of relative stability. The two major political parties that remain are the APC and
1540-794: A single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate. Most proposals came from leaders of the Protectorate, whose population far outnumbered that in the colony. The Krios, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson , opposed the proposals, as they would have resulted in reducing the political power of the Krios in the Colony. In 1951, Lamina Sankoh ( born :Etheldred Jones) collaborated with educated protectorate leaders from different groups, including Sir Milton Margai , Siaka Stevens , Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, John Karefa-Smart , Kande Bureh, Sir Albert Margai , Amadu Wurie and Sir Banja Tejan-Sie joined together with
1650-453: A very ugly and socially-despised man, who saves him in the end. The story was apparently popular as it was reprinted numerous times, most recently in 2010. In 1909, Henry Frowde and Hodder & Stoughton 's joint venture reissued the book, but this time with eight full-page colour illustrations, including the frontispiece, by the renowned book illustrator Charles Edmund Brock . The costs of colour illustration had decreased significantly since
1760-625: A writing agreement with publisher George Macmillan , for she wished to publish her travel accounts. She returned to Africa yet again on 23 December 1894 with more support and supplies from England, as well as increased self-assurance in her work. She longed to study " cannibal " people and their traditional religious practices, commonly referred to as " fetish " during the Victorian Era. In April, she became acquainted with Scottish missionary Mary Slessor , another European woman living among native African populations with little company and no husband. It
1870-574: A young age; because, at that time and at her level of society, education was not thought to be necessary for a girl. She did, however, have access to her father's large library and loved to hear his stories of foreign countries. She did not enjoy novels that were deemed more appropriate for young ladies of the time, such as those by Jane Austen or Charlotte Brontë , but preferred books on the sciences and memoirs of explorers. In 1886, her brother Charley entered Christ's College, Cambridge , to read law; this allowed Mary to make several academic connections and
1980-408: Is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa . It is bordered to the southeast by Liberia and by Guinea to the north. Its land area is 71,740 km (27,699 sq mi). It has a tropical climate and environments ranging from savannas to rainforests . As of the 2023 census, Sierra Leone has a population of 8,908,040. Freetown is both its capital and its largest city. The country
2090-438: Is divided into five administrative regions, which are further subdivided into 16 districts . Sierra Leone is a presidential republic , with a unicameral parliament and a directly elected president . It is a secular state . Its constitution provides for the separation of state and religion and freedom of conscience (which encompasses both freedom of thought and religion ). Muslims constitute three-quarters of
2200-400: Is marked by continuous human habitation for at least 2,500 years, influenced by migrations from across Africa. The adoption of iron technology by the 9th century and establishment of agriculture by 1000 AD along the coast. Climate shifts over centuries altered the ecological zones, influencing migration and conquest dynamics. The region's dense tropical rainforest and swamps, coupled with
2310-525: Is recorded as a BA Student at Law and Mary as a Student of Medicine. In her later years, Kingsley's mother became ill, and she was expected to care for her well-being. Unable to leave her mother's side, she was limited in her travel opportunities. Soon, her father was also bedridden with rheumatic fever following an excursion. Dr. Kingsley died in February 1892, and Mrs. Kingsley followed a few months later in April of
SECTION 20
#17328547614232420-461: Is rich with natural resources, notably diamonds, gold, bauxite and aluminium. As of the most recent survey in 2019, 59.2% of the population is affected by multidimensional poverty and an additional 21.3% vulnerable to it. Sierra Leone maintains membership in several international organizations, including the United Nations, African Union, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and
2530-452: The All People's Congress (APC), the country adopted a new constitution, transforming Sierra Leone into a presidential republic, with Stevens as the inaugural president. In 1978, Stevens declared the APC to be the sole legally recognized party . In 1985, he was succeeded by Joseph Saidu Momoh . Momoh's enactment of a new constitution in 1991 reintroduced a multi-party system . That same year,
2640-546: The Creole/Krio ethnicity and an English-based creole language ( Krio ), which is the lingua franca and de facto national language used among many of the ethnicities in the country. The colonial era saw Sierra Leone evolving under British rule, with a unique settlement pattern composed of displaced Africans following the abolition of the slave trade . Sierra Leone developed as an educational center in West Africa, with
2750-710: The Sierra Leone Company was established to relocate Black Loyalists who wanted to take their chances in West Africa. In 1792 nearly 1,200 persons from Nova Scotia crossed the Atlantic to build the second (and only permanent) Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown on 11 March 1792. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotian Settlers , the Nova Scotians , or the Settlers . Clarkson initially banned
2860-671: The Sioux . The subsequent Battle of the Little Bighorn terrified the Kingsley family, but they were relieved to learn that bad weather had kept Dr. Kingsley from joining Custer. It is possible that her father's views on the brutal treatment of Native Americans in the United States helped shape Mary's later opinions on European colonialism in West Africa. Mary Kingsley had little formal schooling compared to her brother, other than German lessons at
2970-487: The paramount chiefs in the face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Krio elements to achieve independence from the UK. In November 1951, Margai oversaw the drafting of a new constitution, which united the separate Colonial and Protectorate legislatures and provided a framework for decolonisation . In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers and Margai
3080-460: The (British) monopoly on Sierra Leone trade. At about the same time (following the Slave Trade Act 1807 which abolished the slave trade), Royal Navy crews delivered thousands of formerly enslaved Africans to Freetown, after liberating them from illegal slave ships. These Liberated Africans or recaptives were sold for $ 20 a head as apprentices to the white settlers, Nova Scotian Settlers, and
3190-472: The 1887 edition, and colour was now the norm for books for younger children. The following illustrations show the story in outline. [[Category:People from Hart District Sierra Leone Sierra Leone , ( / s i ˌ ɛr ə l i ˈ oʊ n ( i )/ , also UK : / s i ˌ ɛər ə -/ , US : / ˌ s ɪər ə -/ ; Krio : Salone ) officially the Republic of Sierra Leone ,
3300-556: The 4,040 metres (13,250 ft) Mount Cameroon by a route not previously attempted by any other European. She moored her boat at Donguila . When she returned home in November 1895, Kingsley was greeted by journalists eager to interview her. The reports that were drummed up about her voyage, however, were most upsetting, as the papers portrayed her as a " New Woman ", an image which she did not embrace. Kingsley distanced herself from any feminist movement claims, arguing that women's suffrage
3410-821: The American Revolution, Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia , Canada, were relocated to Sierra Leone, founding Freetown and contributing significantly to the Krio people and Krio language that would come to define the region. Following the American Revolution , more than 3,000 Black Loyalists had also been settled in Nova Scotia , where they were finally granted land. They founded Birchtown , but faced harsh winters and racial discrimination from nearby Shelburne . Thomas Peters pressed British authorities for relief and more aid; together with British abolitionist John Clarkson ,
Mary Kingsley - Misplaced Pages Continue
3520-686: The British Crown founded a settlement in Sierra Leone in what was called the " Province of Freedom ". About 400 black and 60 white colonists reached Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787. After they established Granville Town , most of the first group of colonists died, owing to disease and warfare with the indigenous African peoples ( Temne ), who resisted their encroachment. When the ships left them in September, they had been reduced to "276 persons, namely 212 black men, 30 black women, 5 white men and 29 white women". The settlers that remained forcibly captured land from
3630-491: The British decided they needed to establish more dominion over the inland areas, to satisfy what was described by the European powers as "effective occupation". In 1896 it annexed these areas, declaring them the Sierra Leone Protectorate. With this change, the British began to expand their administration in the region, recruiting British citizens to posts and pushing Krio people out of positions in government and even
3740-637: The British evacuated from the nascent United States and resettled in colonies elsewhere in British North America . Pro-slavery advocates accused the Black Poor of being responsible for a large proportion of crime in 18th century London. While the broader community included some women, the Black Poor seems to have exclusively consisted of men, some of whom developed relationships with local women and often married them. Slave owner Edward Long criticized marriage between black men and white women. However, on
3850-491: The British. Because Madam Yoko supported the British, some sub-chiefs rebelled, causing Yoko to take refuge in the police barracks. For her loyalty, she was awarded a silver medal by Queen Victoria . Until 1906, Madam Yoko ruled as a paramount chief in the new British Protectorate. The British annexation of the Protectorate interfered with the sovereignty of indigenous chiefs. They designated chiefs as units of local government, rather than dealing with them individually as had been
3960-613: The Commonwealth of Nations, among others. Sierra Leone derives its name from the Lion Mountains near its capital, Freetown. Originally named Serra Leoa ( Portuguese for 'lioness mountains') by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra in 1462, the modern name is derived from the Venetian spelling, which was introduced by Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto and subsequently adopted by other European mapmakers . Sierra Leone's history
4070-553: The Creole ethnic group. As a result, Albert Margai became unpopular in the Creole community, many of whom had supported Sir Milton. Margai sought to make the army homogeneously Mende , his own ethnic group, and was accused of favouring members of the Mende for prominent positions. In 1967, riots broke out in Freetown against Margai's policies. In response, he declared a state of emergency across
4180-580: The Gold Coast; his government hanged 96 of the chief's warriors. Bureh was allowed to return in 1905, when he resumed his chieftaincy of Kasseh. The defeat of the Temne and Mende in the Hut Tax War ended mass resistance to the Protectorate and colonial government, but intermittent rioting and labour unrest continued throughout the colonial period. Riots in 1955 and 1956 involved "tens of thousands" of Sierra Leoneans in
4290-631: The Government of Queen Elizabeth II and British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod in negotiations for independence held in London. On the conclusion of talks in London on 4 May 1960, the United Kingdom agreed to grant Sierra Leone independence on 27 April 1961. On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai led Sierra Leone to independence from Great Britain and became the country's first prime minister. Sierra Leone had its own parliament and its own prime minister, and had
4400-666: The Governor of the Sierra Leone Company and a leading abolitionist, surrendered the company's charter. This ended its 16 years of running the Colony. The British Crown reorganised the Sierra Leone Company as the African Institution ; it was directed to improve the local economy. Its members represented both British who hoped to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company, which held
4510-674: The Jamaican Maroons. Many Liberated Africans were treated poorly and even abused because some of the original settlers considered them their property. Cut off from their various homelands and traditions, the Liberated Africans were forced to assimilate to the Western styles of Settlers and Maroons. For example, some of the Liberated Africans were forced to change their name to a more Western sounding one. Though some people happily embraced these changes because they considered it as being part of
Mary Kingsley - Misplaced Pages Continue
4620-610: The Liberated Africans became successful traders and spread Christianity throughout West Africa, they intermarried with the Nova Scotians and Maroons, and the two groups eventually became a fusion of African and Western societies. These Liberated Africans were from many areas of Africa, but principally the west coast. Between the 18th and 19th century, freed African Americans, some Americo Liberian "refugees", and particularly Afro-Caribbeans , mainly Jamaican Maroons, also immigrated and settled in Freetown. Together these peoples formed
4730-569: The Mary Kingsley Auditorium at the Institute of African Studies, Fourah Bay College ( University of Sierra Leone ), was named after her. Mary St Leger Kingsley Lucas Malet was the pseudonym of Mary St Leger Kingsley (4 June 1852 — 27 October 1931), a Victorian novelist. Of her novels, The Wages of Sin (1891) and The History of Sir Richard Calmady (1901) were especially popular. Malet scholar Talia Schaffer notes that she
4840-471: The Protectorate. Domestic slavery , which continued to be practised by local African elites, was abolished in 1928. A notable event in 1935 was the granting of a monopoly on mineral mining to the Sierra Leone Selection Trust , run by De Beers . The monopoly was scheduled to last 98 years. Mining of diamonds in the east and other minerals expanded, drawing labourers there from other parts of
4950-540: The Register of Liberated Africans. Often documentation would be subjective and result in inaccurate entries, making them difficult to track. Differences between the Register of Liberated Africans of 1808 and the List of Captured Negroes of 1812 (which emulated the 1808 document) revealed disparities in the entries, specifically in the names; many recaptives decided to change their given names to anglicised versions which contributed to
5060-458: The SLPP leadership position. Karefa-Smart led a prominent small minority faction within the SLPP party in opposition of Albert Margai as prime minister. However, Karefa-Smart failed to receive broad support within the SLPP in his attempt to oust Albert Margai as both the leader of the SLPP and prime minister. The large majority of SLPP members backed Albert Margai over Karefa-Smart. Soon after Albert Margai
5170-465: The SLPP. Sierra Leone is a culturally diverse country, home to approximately 18 ethnic groups , with the Temne and Mende peoples being predominant. The Creole people , descendants of freed African-American, Afro-Caribbean slaves and liberated Africans, constitute about 1.2% of the population. English is the official language, while Krio is the lingua franca , spoken by 97% of the population. The country
5280-530: The West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in west Sub-Saharan Africa . Samuel Ajayi Crowther was the first student to be enrolled. Fourah Bay College soon drew Creoles/Krio people and other Africans seeking higher education in British West Africa. These included Nigerians, Ghanaians, Ivorians and others, especially in the fields of theology and education. Freetown
5390-476: The Writer's Life of Lucas Malet , remains the only major biography of the author. Talia Schaffer notes that Lundberg's book re-constructs historical gaps in the author's life created both by critical neglect and Malet's own actions (she asked Vallings to burn her personal papers, for example.) The biography uses Malet's life and work to show "how late Victorian conditions fostered an oeuvre as ambitious as Malet's and how
5500-415: The ability to make 100% of its own laws, however, as with countries such as Canada and Australia, Sierra Leone remained a "Dominion" and Queen Elizabeth was Queen of the independent Dominion of Sierra Leone . Thousands of Sierra Leoneans took to the streets in celebration. The Dominion of Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of
5610-410: The advent of modernism damaged her reputation." She also completed her father's unfinished novel The Tutor's Story . In 1887, Kegan Paul & Co. published Kingsley's short book Little Peter: A Christmas Morality for Children of any Age with nine full page illustrations including the frontispiece, and several smaller ones, by Paul Hardy . The book tells the story of a small boy who befriends
SECTION 50
#17328547614235720-428: The community, some were not happy with these changes and wanted to keep their own identity. Many Liberated Africans were so unhappy that they risked the possibility of being sold back into slavery by leaving Sierra Leone and going back to their original villages. The Liberated Africans eventually modified their customs to adopt those of the Nova Scotians, Maroons and Europeans, yet kept some of their ethnic traditions. As
5830-422: The conflict somewhat later, for other reasons. For several months, Bureh's fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British forces but both sides suffered hundreds of fatalities. Bureh surrendered on 11 November 1898 to end the destruction of his people's territory and dwellings. Although the British government recommended leniency, Cardew insisted on sending the chief and two allies into exile in
5940-405: The country. In 1924, the UK government divided the administration of Sierra Leone into Colony and Protectorate, with different political systems for each. The Colony was Freetown and its coastal area; the Protectorate was defined as the hinterland areas dominated by local chiefs. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate in 1947, when proposals were introduced to provide for
6050-525: The country. Sir Albert was accused of corruption and of a policy of affirmative action in favour of the Mende ethnic group. He also endeavoured to change Sierra Leone from a democracy to a one-party state . The APC, with its leader Siaka Stevens , narrowly won a small majority of seats in Parliament over the SLPP in a closely contested 1967 general election . Stevens was sworn in as prime minister on 21 March 1967. Within hours after taking office, Stevens
6160-504: The couple soon separated. After the separation, Malet embarked on an independent writing career, forming her pen name by combining two little-known family names. Her first novel, Mrs. Lorimer, a Sketch in Black and White , was published in 1882. Critical attention and praise came with Malet's second novel, Colonel Enderby's Wife , published in 1885, which fictionalized her brief failed marriage. Five years after her husband's death, Kingsley became
6270-546: The culture, eventually establishing a strong foothold in the north. The conquest by Samory Touré in the northeast solidified Islam among the Yalunka , Kuranko and Limba people. The 15th century marked the beginning of European interaction with Sierra Leone, highlighted by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapping the region in 1462 and naming it after the lioness mountains. This naming has been subject to historical reinterpretation, suggesting earlier European knowledge of
6380-403: The desirable residential areas in Freetown. During the British annexation in Sierra Leone, chiefs in the north and south of the country resisted the "hut tax" imposed by the colonial administrators. In the north, there was a Limba chief named Almamy Suluku fighting to protect his territory, while using diplomacy to trick the protectorate administrators, and sending fighters to assist Bai Bureh ,
6490-579: The devil to impregnate her. Kingsley arrived at Slessor's residence shortly after she had taken in a recent mother of twins and her surviving child. Later in Gabon , Kingsley canoed up the Ogooué River , where she collected specimens of fish previously unknown to western science, three of which were later named after her. After meeting the Fang people and travelling through uncharted Fang territory, she daringly climbed
6600-530: The difficulty in tracking them after they arrived. In the early 19th century, Freetown served as the residence of the British colonial governor of the region, who also administered the Gold Coast (now Ghana ) and the Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone developed as the educational centre of British West Africa . The British established Fourah Bay College in 1827, which became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on
6710-484: The dwellings, and 24 chiefs signed a petition to Cardew, stating how destructive this was; their people could not afford to take time off from their subsistence agriculture. They resisted payment of taxes, tensions over the new colonial requirements and the administration's suspicions towards the chiefs, led to the Hut Tax War. The British fired first; the northern front of mainly Temne people was led by Bai Bureh. The southern front, consisting mostly of Mende people , entered
SECTION 60
#17328547614236820-451: The establishment of Fourah Bay College in 1827, attracting English-speaking Africans from across the region. The settlement of Sierra Leone in the 1800s was unique in that the population was composed of displaced Africans, brought to the colony after the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807. Upon arrival in Sierra Leone, each recaptive was given a registration number, and information on their physical qualities would be entered into
6930-560: The height of her career, Malet died in penury at the home of a friend in Wales on 27 October 1931. Despite a lack of attention to Malet, it is known that she wrote at least 17 novels, two books of short fiction, many short stories, literary essays, and poems. She also finished at least one of her father's novels. Talia Schaffer notes that her "literary ideologies were shaped by writers ranging from George Eliot to Zola." Her father, niece and cousin were all writers as well, but today Malet remains
7040-457: The ill for about two months, she developed symptoms of typhoid and died on 3 June 1900. An eyewitness reported: "She rallied for a short time but realised she was going. She asked to be left to die alone, saying she did not wish anyone to see her in her weakness. Animals she said, went away to die alone." In accordance with her wishes, she was buried at sea. "This was, I believe, the only favour and distinction that she ever asked for herself; and it
7150-649: The inland Protectorate was created as a result of the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 . This led to the formal recognition of the territory as the Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate . Sierra Leone attained independence from the United Kingdom in 1961 under the leadership of Prime Minister Sir Milton Margai of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP). In 1971, under Prime Minister Siaka Stevens of
7260-504: The king of an area. Local Afro-European merchants often acted as middlemen, the Europeans advancing them goods to trade to indigenous merchants, most often for slaves and ivory. Portuguese traders were particularly drawn to the local craftsmanship in ivory , leading to a notable trade in ivory artifacts such as horns, Sapi Saltceller , and spoons. The Sapi people belonged to a cluster of people who spoke West Atlantic languages , living in
7370-653: The late 18th century, African Americans who had fought for the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War were resettled in Sierra Leone, forming a community named Black Loyalists . This resettlement scheme was partly motivated by social issues in London, with the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme offering a new beginning for the Black Poor , though it was fraught with challenges. In
7480-555: The late 18th century, many African Americans claimed the protection of the British Crown. There were thousands of these Black Loyalists, people of African ancestry who joined the British military forces during the American Revolutionary War. Many had been slaves who had escaped to join the British, lured by promises of freedom ( emancipation ). Official documentation known as the Book of Negroes lists thousands of freed slaves whom
7590-423: The least studied of the Kingsley writers: her "authorial persona emerges as a way to escape her biographical situation." Malet's first novel was Mrs. Lorimer, a Sketch in Black and White , (1882) while her first critical success was Colonel Enderby's Wife (1885). The Wages of Sin , generally regarded as one of Malet's most important novels, was published in 1891: the novel is believed by some critics to have been
7700-420: The main opposition All People's Congress (APC), Siaka Stevens, along with Isaac Wallace-Johnson, another outspoken critic of the SLPP government, were arrested and placed under house arrest in Freetown, along with sixteen others charged with disrupting the independence celebration. In May 1962, Sierra Leone held its first general election as an independent state. The Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) won
7810-435: The native customs of African people that were previously little discussed but misunderstood by people in Europe. The Fair Commerce Party formed soon after her death, pressuring for improved conditions for the natives of British colonies. Various reform associations were formed in her honour and helped facilitate governmental change. The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine founded an honorary medal in her name. In Sierra Leone,
7920-454: The necessity of indirect rule and the adoption of European culture and technology by indigenous populations, insisting that there was some work in West Africa that had to be completed by white men. Yet in Studies in West Africa she writes: "Although a Darwinian to the core, I doubt if evolution in a neat and tidy perpendicular line, with Fetish at the bottom and Christianity at the top, represents
8030-635: The next three years, she toured England, giving lectures about life in Africa to a wide array of audiences. She was the first woman to address the Liverpool and Manchester chambers of commerce. Kingsley upset the Church of England when she criticised missionaries for attempting to convert the people of Africa and corrupt their religions. In this regard, she discussed many aspects of African life that were shocking to English people, including polygamy , which, she argued
8140-412: The population, and there is a significant Christian minority. Notably, religious tolerance is very high: it is both a social norm and part of the nation's cultural identity. Sierra Leone's current territorial configuration was established in two phases: in 1808, the coastal Sierra Leone Colony was founded as a place to resettle returning Africans after the abolition of the slave trade ; then in 1896,
8250-403: The powerful paramount chiefs in the protectorate to form the Sierra Leone People's Party or SLPP as the party of the Protectorate. The SLPP leadership, led by Sir Milton Margai, negotiated with the British and the educated Krio-dominated colony based in Freetown to achieve independence. Owing to the astute politics of Milton Margai, the educated Protectorate elites were able to join forces with
8360-587: The presence of the tsetse fly which carried a disease fatal to horses and the zebu cattle used by the Mandé people , provided natural defenses against invasions by the Mandinka Empire and other African empires, and limited influence by the Mali Empire , preserving its indigenous cultures from external dominions. The introduction of Islam by Susu traders, merchants and migrants in the 18th century further enriched
8470-406: The previous practice. They did not maintain relationships even with longstanding allies, such as Bai Bureh, who was later unfairly portrayed as a prime instigator of the Hut Tax War. Colonel Frederic Cardew , military governor of the Protectorate, in 1898 established a new tax on dwellings and demanded that the chiefs use their people to maintain roads. The taxes were often higher than the value of
8580-523: The psychology of masochism, perverse desires, unconventional gender roles, and the body." She was born at the rectory in Eversley , Hampshire , the younger daughter of Reverend Charles Kingsley (author of The Water Babies ) and his wife Frances Eliza Grenfell, the third of the couple's four children. Her paternal uncles Henry Kingsley and George Kingsley were both writers and her cousin Mary Kingsley
8690-637: The region of modern day Sierra Leone. There had already been a carving culture established in the area prior to Portuguese contact and many travelers to Sierra Leone initially impressed with their carving skills took local ivory horns back to Europe. One notable description at the beginning of the 16th century, by Pacheco noted that: in this country [Sierra Leone] they make beautiful mats of palm-leaf and necklaces of ivory [...]: In this land they make ivory necklaces more delicately carved than in any other country, also very fine and beautiful mats of palm-leaf, which are call 'bicas' [which are] very beautiful and good. In
8800-626: The region. Following Sintra, European traders established fortified posts, engaging primarily in the slave trade , which shaped the socio-economic landscape significantly. Traders from Europe, such as the Dutch Republic , England and France started to arrive in Sierra Leone and establish trading stations. These stations quickly began to primarily deal in slaves, who were brought to the coast by indigenous traders from interior areas, undergoing conflicts over territory. The Europeans made payments, called Cole , for rent, tribute, and trading rights, to
8910-623: The running of the new colony. Government officials soon became involved in the scheme as well, although their interest was spurred by the possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt the Younger , prime minister and leader of the Tory party, had an active interest in the Scheme because he saw it as a means to repatriate the Black Poor to Africa, since "it was necessary they should be sent somewhere, and be no longer suffered to infest
9020-544: The same year. "Freed" from her family responsibilities and with an inheritance of £8,600 to be split evenly with her brother, Kingsley was now able to travel as she had always dreamed. After a preliminary visit to the Canary Islands , Kingsley decided to travel to the west coast of Africa. Generally, the only non-African women who embarked on (often dangerous) journeys to Africa were the wives of missionaries , government officials, or explorers. Exploration had not been seen as
9130-549: The scholarly community. Some newspapers, such as The Times under pro-imperialist editor Flora Shaw , refused to publish reviews of her works. Though some have argued that such refusals were grounded in the anti-imperialist arguments presented in Kingsley's works, this unlikely explains her frequently unfavourable reception in Europe, because she was both a supporter of the activities of European traders in West Africa and of indirect rule. The notable success of Travels in West Africa
9240-535: The settlers revolted. The Crown subdued the revolt by bringing in forces of more than 500 Jamaican Maroons , whom they transported from Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) via Nova Scotia in 1800. Led by Colonel Montague James , the Maroons helped the colonial forces to put down the revolt, and in the process the Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone secured the best houses and farms. On 1 January 1808, Thomas Ludlam ,
9350-519: The streets of London". In January 1787, the Atlantic and the Belisarius set sail for Sierra Leone, but bad weather forced them to divert to Plymouth, during which time about 50 passengers died. Another 24 were discharged, and 23 ran away. Eventually, with more recruitment, 411 passengers sailed to Sierra Leone in April 1787. On the voyage between Plymouth and Sierra Leone, 96 passengers died. In 1787
9460-464: The support of a husband – thus creating immense social and economic problems. Kingsley's also criticised teetotal missionaries, suggesting that those who drank small quantities of alcohol had better survival rates. Kingsley's beliefs about cultural and economic imperialism are complex and widely debated by scholars today. Though, on the one hand, she regarded African people and cultures as those who needed protection and preservation, she also believed in
9570-542: The survivors of Granville Town from joining the new settlement, blaming them for the demise of Granville Town. The Settlers built Freetown in the styles they knew from their lives in the American South ; they also continued American fashion and American manners. In addition, many continued to practise Methodism in Freetown. In the 1790s, the Settlers, including adult women, voted for the first time in elections. In 1792, in
9680-595: The text of his daughter – a forerunner of Lévi-Strauss and his Tristes Tropiques – that the dream wish of the father is finally accomplished; and family honour sustained. After the outbreak of the Second Boer War , Kingsley travelled to Cape Town on the SS Moor in March 1900, and volunteered as a nurse. She was stationed at Simon's Town hospital, where she treated Boer prisoners of war. After contributing her services to
9790-561: The true state of affairs." Other, more acceptable, beliefs were variously perceived and used in Western European society – by traders, colonists, women's rights activists and others – and, articulated as they were in great style, helped shape popular perception of "the African" and "his" land. Kingsley wrote two books about her experiences: Travels in West Africa (1897), which was an immediate best-seller, and West African Studies (1899), both of which gained her respect and prestige within
9900-458: The voyage between Plymouth, England and Sierra Leone, 70 European girlfriends and wives accompanied the Black Poor settlers . Many in London thought moving them to Sierra Leone would lift them out of poverty. The Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme was proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman and drew interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp , who saw it as a means of showing the pro-slavery lobby that black people could contribute towards
10010-519: The wilderness, and gave her advice. She often went into dangerous areas alone. Her training as a nurse at the de:Kaiserswerther Diakonie had prepared her for slight injuries and jungle maladies that she would later encounter. Kingsley returned to England in December 1893. Upon her return, Kingsley secured support and aid from Dr. Albert Günther , a prominent zoologist at the British Museum , as well as
10120-436: Was "a minor question; while there was a most vital section of men disenfranchised women could wait". Her consistent lack of identification with women's rights movements may be attributed to a number of causes, such as the attempt to ensure that her work would be received more favorably; in fact, some insist this might be a direct reference to her belief in the importance of securing rights for British traders in West Africa. Over
10230-487: Was "widely regarded as one of the premier writers of fiction in the English-speaking world" at the height of her career, but her reputation declined by the end of her life and today she is rarely read or studied. At the height of her popularity she was "compared favorably to Thomas Hardy, and Henry James, with sales rivaling Rudyard Kipling." Malet's fin de siecle novels offer "detailed, sensitive investigations of
10340-430: Was a desire to complete a great book my father, George Kingsley, had left at his death unfinished." Of her father she said: "The work that he did seemed to promise a career of great brilliancy and distinction – a promise which, unfortunately, was never entirely fulfilled." In truth George Kingsley produced but a few scattered fragments, not a scrap of which found its way into the great book of Mary Kingsley. It is, rather, in
10450-426: Was a physician and worked for George Herbert, 13th Earl of Pembroke and other aristocrats and was frequently away from home on his excursions. During these voyages he collected information for his studies. Dr. Kingsley accompanied Lord Dunraven on a trip to North America from 1870 to 1875. During the trip, Dr. Kingsley was invited to accompany United States Army officer George Armstrong Custer 's expedition against
10560-606: Was accorded with every circumstance and honour ... A party of West Yorkshires, with band before them, drew the coffin from the hospital on a gun carriage to the pier … Torpedo Boat No. 29 put to sea and, rounding Cape Point, committed her to the element in which she had chosen to be laid." "A touch of comedy, which would 'have amused' Kingsley herself, was added when the coffin refused to sink and had to be hauled back on board then thrown over again weighed down this time with an anchor." Kingsley's tales and opinions of life in Africa helped draw attention to British imperial agendas abroad and
10670-576: Was an African traveller and ethnologist. Kingsley was educated at home and studied art with Sir Edward Poynter, 1st Baronet . She was for a time a student at the Slade School . In 1876, she married the Rev. William Harrison, a colleague of her father's, Minor Canon of Westminster , and Priest-in-Ordinary to the Queen. Malet gave up artistic aspirations after the marriage. The marriage was childless and unhappy, and
10780-588: Was born in London on 13 October 1862, the daughter and oldest child of physician, traveller and writer George Kingsley and Mary Bailey. She came from a family of writers, as she was also the niece of novelists Charles Kingsley and Henry Kingsley . The family moved to Highgate less than a year after her birth, the same home where her brother Charles George R. ("Charley") Kingsley was born in 1866, and by 1881 were living in Southwood House, Bexley in Kent . Her father
10890-476: Was completed after the author's death by her companion Gabrielle Vallings, and published in August 1932. Biographer Patricia Lorimer Lundberg attributes Malet's swift decline in reputation to multiple factors including the author's confusing sexual and gender politics and an "evolving modernist style" that "met with sloppy reviews that endeavored to push her back into Victorianism." Lundberg's book, An Inward Necessity:
11000-401: Was due in no small part to the vigour and droll humour of her writing, that, in the guise of a ripping yarn, never wavers from its true purpose—to complete the work her father had left undone. Between poles of manifest wit and latent analysis Kingsley constructs in images – "… not an artist's picture, but a photograph, an overladen with detail, colourless version" – a discourse of poetic thought;
11110-399: Was during her meeting with Slessor that Kingsley first became aware of the custom of twin killing , a custom which Slessor was determined to stop. The native people believed that one of the twins was the offspring of the devil who had secretly mated with the mother and since the innocent child was impossible to distinguish, both were killed and the mother was often killed as well for attracting
11220-483: Was elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone had a parliamentary system within the Commonwealth of Nations . In May 1957, Sierra Leone held its first parliamentary election. The SLPP, which was then the most popular political party in the colony of Sierra Leone as well as being supported by the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, won the most seats in Parliament and Margai
11330-463: Was known as the " Athens of Africa" due to the number of excellent schools in Freetown and surrounding areas. The British interacted mostly with the Krio people in Freetown, who did most of the trading with the indigenous peoples of the interior. Educated Krio people held numerous positions in the colonial government, giving them status and well-paying positions. Following the Berlin Conference of 1884–85,
11440-594: Was later freed and fled the country, going into exile in neighbouring Guinea. However, on 23 March 1967, a group of military officers in the Sierra Leone Army led by Brigadier General Andrew Juxon-Smith , staged a counter-coup against Commander Lansana. They seized control of the government, arrested Lansana, and suspended the constitution. The group set up the National Reformation Council (NRC), with Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of
11550-465: Was not available in Nova Scotia. The initial process of society-building in Freetown was a harsh struggle. The Crown did not supply enough basic supplies and provisions and the Settlers were continually threatened by illegal slave trading and the risk of re-enslavement. The Sierra Leone Company, controlled by London investors, refused to allow the settlers to take freehold of the land. In 1799 some of
11660-491: Was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing executive powers to the Paramount Chiefs, many of whom had been allies of his late brother Sir Milton. Accordingly, they began to consider Sir Albert a threat to the ruling houses across the country. Margai appointed many non-Creoles to the country's civil service in Freetown, in an overall diversification of the civil service in the capital, which had been dominated by members of
11770-581: Was ousted in a bloodless military coup led by Brigadier General David Lansana , the commander of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces . He was a close ally of Albert Margai, who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest in Freetown and insisted that the determination of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the House. Steven
11880-431: Was practiced out of necessity. After living with the African people, Kingsley became directly aware how their societies functioned and how prohibiting customs such as polygamy would be detrimental to their way of life. She knew that the typical African wives had too many tasks to manage alone. Missionaries in Africa often required converted men to abandon all but one of their wives, leaving the other women and children without
11990-453: Was re-elected as Chief Minister by a landslide. Sierra Leone was granted independence by the United Kingdom in 1961, transitioning to a state with its own governance structures, though it faced significant political instability post-independence, including the establishment of a one-party state and periods of civil unrest. On 20 April 1960, Milton Margai led a 24-member Sierra Leonean delegation at constitutional conferences that were held with
12100-430: Was sworn in as prime minister, he fired several senior government officials who had served in his elder brother Sir Milton's government, viewing them as a threat to his administration, including Karefa-Smart. Sir Albert resorted to increasingly authoritarian actions in response to protests and enacted several laws against the opposition All People's Congress, while attempting to establish a one-party state . Sir Albert
#422577