Legend: unrounded • rounded
37-559: Martuthunira is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language , that was the traditional language of the Martuthunira people of Western Australia . The last fluent speaker of Martuthunira, Algy Paterson , died on 6 August 1995. From 1980 he worked with the linguist Alan Dench to preserve Martuthunira in writing, and it is from their work that most of our knowledge of Martuthunira today comes. The name Martuthunira , pronounced [maɽʊðʊneɻa] by native speakers, means "those who live around
74-514: A euro- ACC mirtily- marta - a joey- PROP - ACC thara- ngka - marta - a . pouch- LOC - PROP - ACC Ngayu nhawulha ngurnu tharnta- a mirtily- marta - a thara- ngka - marta - a . I saw that euro- ACC joey- PROP - ACC pouch- LOC - PROP - ACC I saw that euro with a joey in its pouch. Extinct language An extinct language is a language with no living descendants that no longer has any first-language or second-language speakers. In contrast,
111-518: A dead language is a language that no longer has any first-language speakers, but does have second-language speakers or is used fluently in written form, such as Latin . A dormant language is a dead language that still serves as a symbol of ethnic identity to an ethnic group ; these languages are often undergoing a process of revitalisation . Languages that have first-language speakers are known as modern or living languages to contrast them with dead languages, especially in educational contexts. In
148-457: A syllable coda . The alveolar rhotic /r/ is a tap [ ɾ ] between vowels, and a usually voiceless trill [ r̥ ] finally. The palatal semivowel /j/ may be dropped initially before /i/ , but the equivalent dropping of /w/ before initial /u/ is rare. /i/ is usually realised as [ ɪ ] , though it may be realised as [ i ] near palatal consonants and as [ e ] near /r/ , /n/ or /l/ . /iː/
185-434: A vernacular language . The revival of Hebrew has been largely successful due to extraordinarily favourable conditions, notably the creation of a nation state (modern Israel in 1948) in which it became the official language, as well as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda 's extreme dedication to the revival of the language, by creating new words for the modern terms Hebrew lacked. Revival attempts for minor extinct languages with no status as
222-420: A historical language may remain in use as a literary or liturgical language long after it ceases to be spoken natively. Such languages are sometimes also referred to as "dead languages", but more typically as classical languages . The most prominent Western example of such a language is Latin , and comparable cases are found throughout world history due to the universal tendency to retain a historical stage of
259-407: A language as the liturgical language . In a view that prioritizes written representation over natural language acquisition and evolution, historical languages with living descendants that have undergone significant language change may be considered "extinct", especially in cases where they did not leave a corpus of literature or liturgy that remained in widespread use (see corpus language ), as
296-504: A liturgical language typically have more modest results. The Cornish language revival has proven at least partially successful: after a century of effort there are 3,500 claimed native speakers, enough for UNESCO to change its classification from "extinct" to "critically endangered". A Livonian language revival movement to promote the use of the Livonian language has managed to train a few hundred people to have some knowledge of it. This
333-508: A new generation of native speakers. The optimistic neologism " sleeping beauty languages" has been used to express such a hope, though scholars usually refer to such languages as dormant. In practice, this has only happened on a large scale successfully once: the revival of the Hebrew language . Hebrew had survived for millennia since the Babylonian exile as a liturgical language, but not as
370-523: A number of publications, such as Accents of English by John C. Wells . In the third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary , ⟨ ᵿ ⟩ represents free variation between /ʊ/ and /ə/ . The close central protruded vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨ ʉ ⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. As there is no dedicated diacritic for protrusion in
407-400: A rhotic ( /ʎ l ɭ r/ ); and vowel lengthening for common nominals ending in vowels. The accusative case is identical to the genitive case , except for common nominals ending in vowels, where the genitive suffix is /-wu/ . Martuthunira exhibits case stacking , where nouns take multiple case suffixes for agreement . For example: Ngayu I nhawulha saw ngurnu that tharnta-
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#1732851917031444-416: A substantial trace as a substrate in the language that replaces it. There have, however, also been cases where the language of higher prestige did not displace the native language but left a superstrate influence. The French language for example shows evidence both of a Celtic substrate and a Frankish superstrate. Institutions such as the education system, as well as (often global) forms of media such as
481-520: A voiced allophone [ d ] after a nasal. It occurs between vowels only in a handful of words, probably all loanwords , where it has a longer period of closure than the other stops [ tː ] . The retroflex stop /ʈ/ has a voiced allophone [ ɖ ] after a nasal, and a flapped allophone [ ɽ ] between vowels. Besides the voiced allophones mentioned above, stops are usually voiceless and unaspirated . The laterals have prestopped allophones [ᶜʎ ᵗ̪l̪ ᵗl ɭ] when they occur in
518-476: Is a list of languages reported as having become extinct since 2010. For a more complete list, see Lists of extinct languages . Close central rounded vowel The close central rounded vowel , or high central rounded vowel , is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages . The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ ʉ ⟩, and
555-423: Is realised as [ ɪː ] in morpheme-initial syllables, [ eː ] elsewhere. /u/ is usually realised as [ u ] in stressed syllables, and [ ʊ ] in unstressed syllables. /u/ is fronted to varying degrees when near laminal consonants, being most fronted [ ʉ ] when preceded by a dental consonant. It has an unrounded allophone [ ɨ ] when followed by /ɻ/ . /uː/
592-540: Is the case with Old English or Old High German relative to their contemporary descendants, English and German. Some degree of misunderstanding can result from designating languages such as Old English and Old High German as extinct, or Latin dead, while ignoring their evolution as a language or as many languages. This is expressed in the apparent paradox "Latin is a dead language, but Latin never died." A language such as Etruscan , for example, can be said to be both extinct and dead: inscriptions are ill understood even by
629-461: Is typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ ʉ ⟩. It occurs in some dialects of Swedish , but see also close front compressed vowel . The close back vowels of Norwegian and Swedish are also compressed. See close back compressed vowel . It also occurs in Japanese as an allophone . Medumba has a compressed central vowel [ɨᵝ] where the corners of the mouth are not drawn together. Symbols to
666-472: Is usually [ ʊː ] , but is lowered to [ ɔː ] when preceded by a dental consonant. /a/ is usually [ ɐ ] when stressed, [ ə ] when unstressed. Following a laminal consonant, more so after dentals than palatals, it is fronted towards [ ɛ ] . When preceded by /w/ and followed by a velar consonant, it is realised as [ ɒ ] . /aː/ is usually simply [ ɐː ] . All Martuthunira words begin with one of
703-457: The Fortescue River ". It has many spelling variants, including: Maratunia , Mardadhunira , Mardathon , Mardathoni , Mardathoonera , Mardatuna , Mardatunera , Mardudhoonera , Mardudhunera , Mardudhunira , Mardudjungara , Marduduna , Mardudunera , Marduthunira , Mardutunera , Mardutunira , Marduyunira , Martuthinya , and Martuyhunira . Martuthunira is classified as a member of
740-655: The Ngayarta branch of the Pama–Nyungan languages . Under Carl Georg von Brandenstein 's 1967 classification, Martuthunira was classed as a Coastal Ngayarda language, but the separation of the Ngayarda languages into Coastal and Inland groups is no longer considered valid. Martuthunira has a fairly standard Australian phonology . R. M. W. Dixon uses it as a prototypical example in his 2002 book Australian Languages: Their nature and development . The laterals—but perhaps uniquely not
777-478: The modern period , languages have typically become extinct as a result of the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift , and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favor of a foreign lingua franca , largely those of European countries. As of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of
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#1732851917031814-418: The near-close central rounded vowel ( listen ), which is slightly lower. It is most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨ ʉ̞ ⟩, ⟨ ʊ̈ ⟩ and ⟨ ʊ̟ ⟩, but ⟨ ɵ̝ ⟩ is also a possible transcription. The symbol ⟨ ᵿ ⟩, a conflation of ⟨ ʊ ⟩ and ⟨ ʉ ⟩, is used as an unofficial extension of the IPA to represent this sound by
851-497: The "kill the Indian, save the man" policy of American Indian boarding schools and other measures was to prevent Native Americans from transmitting their native language to the next generation and to punish children who spoke the language of their culture of origin. The French vergonha policy likewise had the aim of eradicating minority languages. Language revival is the attempt to re-introduce an extinct language in everyday use by
888-487: The IPA, symbol for the close central rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨ ̫ ⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨ ʉ̫ ⟩ for the close central protruded vowel. Another possible transcription is ⟨ ʉʷ ⟩ or ⟨ ɨʷ ⟩ (a close central vowel modified by endolabialization), but this could be misread as a diphthong. Because central rounded vowels are assumed to have protrusion, and few descriptions cover
925-463: The Internet, television, and print media play a significant role in the process of language loss. For example, when people migrate to a new country, their children attend school in the country, and the schools are likely to teach them in the majority language of the country rather than their parents' native language. Language death can also be the explicit goal of government policy. For example, part of
962-545: The currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050. Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a language undergoes language death by being directly replaced by a different one. For example, many Native American languages were replaced by Dutch , English , French , Portuguese , or Spanish as a result of European colonization of the Americas . In contrast to an extinct language, which no longer has any speakers, or any written use,
999-413: The distinction, some of the following may actually have compression. As there is no official diacritic for compression in the IPA, the centering diacritic is used with the front rounded vowel [y] , which is normally compressed. Other possible transcriptions are ⟨ ɨ͡β̞ ⟩ (simultaneous [ɨ] and labial compression) and ⟨ ɨᵝ ⟩ ( [ɨ] modified with labial compression ). This vowel
1036-491: The dominant lingua francas of world commerce: English, Mandarin Chinese , Spanish, and French. In their study of contact-induced language change, American linguists Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman (1991) stated that in situations of cultural pressure (where populations are forced to speak a dominant language), three linguistic outcomes may occur: first – and most commonly – a subordinate population may shift abruptly to
1073-453: The dominant language, leaving the native language to a sudden linguistic death. Second, the more gradual process of language death may occur over several generations. The third and most rare outcome is for the pressured group to maintain as much of its native language as possible, while borrowing elements of the dominant language's grammar (replacing all, or portions of, the grammar of the original language). A now disappeared language may leave
1110-418: The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is } . The sound is also commonly referred to by the name of its symbol , "barred u". The close central rounded vowel is the vocalic equivalent of the rare labialized post-palatal approximant [ẅ] . In most languages this rounded vowel is pronounced with protruded lips ( endolabial ). However, in a few cases the lips are compressed ( exolabial ). Some languages feature
1147-414: The following consonants, from most to least frequent: /p k m w ŋ c t̪ j ɲ n̪/ . This consists of only peripheral and laminal stops, nasals, and semivowels. Words may end in a vowel, or one of /n r l ɲ ɳ ʎ ɭ/ . Unlike most Australian languages, which exhibit ergativity , Martuthunira and the other Ngayarta languages have an accusative alignment. That is, the subjects of transitive verbs are treated
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1184-548: The language in question must be conceptualized as frozen in time at a particular state of its history. This is accomplished by periodizing English and German as Old; for Latin, an apt clarifying adjective is Classical, which also normally includes designation of high or formal register . Minor languages are endangered mostly due to economic and cultural globalization , cultural assimilation, and development. With increasing economic integration on national and regional scales, people find it easier to communicate and conduct business in
1221-446: The most knowledgeable scholars, and the language ceased to be used in any form long ago, so that there have been no speakers, native or non-native, for many centuries. In contrast, Old English, Old High German and Latin never ceased evolving as living languages, thus they did not become extinct as Etruscan did. Through time Latin underwent both common and divergent changes in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon, and continues today as
1258-438: The nasals—are allophonically prestopped . The laminal stop /c/ has a voiced allophone [ ɟ ] between vowels. Between vowels, the dental stop /t̪/ can become [ d̪ ] , [ ð ] , [ ð̞ ] , [ ɻ ] , [ j ] , [ w ] , or even simply a syllable break. In some words one particular realization is always used, in others there is free variation . The alveolar stop /t/ has
1295-420: The native language of hundreds of millions of people, renamed as different Romance languages and dialects (French, Italian, Spanish, Corsican , Asturian , Ladin , etc.). Similarly, Old English and Old High German never died, but developed into various forms of modern English and German, as well as other related tongues still spoken (e.g. Scots from Old English and Yiddish from Old High German). With regard to
1332-402: The same as the subjects of intransitive verbs , while the objects are treated differently. The Martuthunira nominative case is unmarked ( zero ). The accusative case , which descends from a suffix that originally marked the dative case , takes the form /-ŋu/ on proper nominals ; /-ku/ on common nominals ending in a nasal ( /ɲ n ɳ/ ); /-ju/ on common nominals ending in a lateral or
1369-487: The written language, skills in reading or writing Etruscan are all but non-existent, but trained people can understand and write Old English, Old High German, and Latin. Latin differs from the Germanic counterparts in that an approximation of its ancient form is still employed to some extent liturgically. This last observation illustrates that for Latin, Old English, or Old High German to be described accurately as dead or extinct,
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