Misplaced Pages

#411588

74-425: The region is strongly influenced by the large mountain ranges stretching throughout most of the coast. Changes in elevation cause changes in plant/animal diversity, this can be exemplified through observing the alpine tundra's vegetation which consists of shrubs, herbs, mosses, and lichens; while lower elevations, the temperate coastal forest hold magnificently large trees such as western hemlock, California redwood, and

148-660: A concern. The Sunflower sea star is an important keystone species which helps control sea urchin abundance, but an outbreak of Sea star wasting disease and a vulnerability to climate change has led to its critical endangerment. Researchers at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of UC Davis are developing replanting strategies, and volunteers of the Orange County Coastkeeper group are replanting giant kelp. Humboldt State University began cultivating bull kelp in its research farm in 2021. Research efforts at

222-460: A connection between the marine coast and the forests when they eat nitrogen-rich salmon and transfer the nutrients to the forests. The Pacific salmon provide strong sources of nitrogen for the aquatic ecosystems. Due to the high precipitation in this Eco region, the nitrogen levels can be very low. The Pacific salmon helps to normalize the nitrogen levels. Without anyone of these species, the ecosystem would fall apart. The Marine West Coast Forests are

296-428: A kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure. Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae: Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a Macrocystis canopy may extend many meters above

370-515: A keystone species because of the critical role it plays in maintaining the structure of the ecosystem. Sea otters feed on sea urchins, which are herbivores of kelps. A large mass of kelp can become an underwater kelp forest , which is considered by many to be one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Two more dominant species found in the Marine West Coast Forest are the gray wolf and grizzly bears . Grizzly bears provide

444-409: A physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (kingdom Protista ), the body of an individual organism is known as a thallus rather than as a plant (kingdom Plantae ). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units: In addition, many kelp species have pneumatocysts , or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near

518-830: A process that delivers cool, nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean's mixed surface layer . Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout the water column. Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp ( Macrocystis spp.) can grow as much as 30–60 cm vertically per day. Some species, such as Nereocystis , are annuals , while others such as Eisenia are perennials , living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods, and increased storm frequency. Kelps are primarily associated with temperate and arctic waters worldwide. Of

592-483: A rich record of long term paleoclimatic change based on the paleosols and the remains of plants and animals, invertebrate and vertebrates that they often contain. These fossils indicate previous geologic and environmental settings. Thick accumulations of colluvium often contain well-preserved and sometimes deeply buried archaeological deposits as excavated at the Cherokee Sewer Site , Cherokee County, Iowa , and

666-535: A stable way of life and preventing them from having to adapt to new ecosystems and develop new survival methods even as they traveled thousands of miles. Modern economies are based on fisheries of kelp-associated species such as lobster and rockfish. Humans can also harvest kelp directly to feed aquaculture species such as abalone and to extract the compound alginic acid , which is used in products like toothpaste and antacids. Kelp forests are valued for recreational activities such as SCUBA diving and kayaking ;

740-403: A unique habitat for a diverse group of species. Several species struggle to survive in the ever disappearing and degrading ecosystems of the northwest. These species face a high risk of extinction; some iconic examples of those listed as threatened or endangered in this ecoregion include the giant sequoia, coast redwood, and marbled murrelet. The giant sequoia and coast redwood are listed as

814-464: A vulnerable under the IUCN Red List standards (Conifer Specialist Group 1998). Large-scale logging, felling 90 to 95 percent of the old-growth forest between 1856 and 1955, is primarily to blame for these species’ now limited range. The remainder of most populations of giant sequoias and coast redwoods is now almost entirely in parks and reserves. (Farjon & Page 1999) Fire prevention policy, however,

SECTION 10

#1732837704412

888-431: Is a general name for loose, unconsolidated sediments that have been deposited at the base of hillslopes by either rainwash, sheetwash, slow continuous downslope creep , or a variable combination of these processes. Colluvium is typically composed of a heterogeneous range of rock types and sediments ranging from silt to rock fragments of various sizes. This term is also used to specifically refer to sediment deposited at

962-399: Is an insect that destroys spruce trees by tunneling into the bark of the trees. These beetles are widespread in the northern part of the ecoregion in states such as Alaska. The beetle’s distribution and survival rate has increased in the last decade due to climate change . Invasive species are also rampant in the ecoregion. These foreign plants and animals disrupt naturally occurring species in

1036-528: Is available, herbivorous grazers do not exert pressure on attached thalli; when drift subsidies are unavailable, grazers directly impact the physical structure of the ecosystem. Many studies in Southern California have demonstrated that the availability of drift kelp specifically influences the foraging behavior of sea urchins. Drift kelp and kelp-derived particulate matter have also been important in subsidizing adjacent habitats, such as sandy beaches and

1110-456: Is generally fine-grained clay and silt material that has the capacity to be entrained in water currents and eventually deposited. For these same reasons, alluvium is also generally well sorted material while colluvium is not. Kelp forest Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp , which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds . They are recognized as one of

1184-585: Is home to large cities like Vancouver , Portland , Anchorage , and Seattle . As these cities continue to grow in population, greater tracts of land are being developed, and more resources are needed to accommodate these higher populations. Logging is another large human induced environmental threat to the ecoregion. Logging causes habitat fragmentation and adversely affects important species such as spotted owl , grizzly bear, and Kermode "spirit" bears, who all require large tracts of land to survive. (Demarchi, Nelson, Kavanagh, Sims, Mann, 2013) The spruce-bark beetle

1258-492: Is less predictable and depends on a combination of abiotic factors and biotic interactions in each case. Though urchins are usually the dominant herbivores, others with significant interaction strengths include seastars , isopods , kelp crabs , and herbivorous fishes. In many cases, these organisms feed on kelp that has been dislodged from substrate and drifts near the ocean floor rather than expend energy searching for intact thalli on which to feed. When sufficient drift kelp

1332-608: Is most to blame for the continued declining of populations, as the build-up of undergrowth hampers the regeneration of both species (Vankat 1977). Luckily, plans to improve management and plant trees on cleared land are in place. (Farjon & Page 1999) Though the marbled murrelet is still considered abundant, its population has undergone a rapid decline, principally because the old-growth forests in which they breed are subject to logging (Piatt et al. 2006). Current estimates are nearly half of historic numbers, suggesting just 350,000 to 420,000 remain (Piatt et al. 2007). The IUCN has listed

1406-671: The California sheephead . The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because redundancy exists in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins. However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation. Similar examples exist in Nova Scotia , South Africa, Australia, and Chile. The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and

1480-469: The Koster Site , Greene County, Illinois . Colluvium can also be rocks that have been transported downward from glaciers and so can indicate past stages of cooler and/or wetter weather. Deposits of detrital colluvium can reveal the soil composition and signify processes of chemical weathering. The definitions of colluvium and alluvium are interdependent and reliant on one another. Distinctions between

1554-508: The American Pacific coast would have provided many benefits to ancient boaters The kelp forests would have provided many sustenance opportunities, as well as acting as a type of buffer from rough water. Besides these benefits, researchers believe that the kelp forests might have helped early boaters navigate, acting as a type of "kelp highway". Theorists also suggest that the kelp forests would have helped these ancient colonists by providing

SECTION 20

#1732837704412

1628-676: The Fuegian[s] ... would ... decrease in numbers and perhaps cease to exist. – Charles Darwin , 1 June 1834, Tierra del Fuego, Chile Physically formed by brown macroalgae , kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns and provide many ecosystem services . However,

1702-608: The base of a hillslope by unconcentrated surface runoff or sheet erosion . Colluviation refers to the buildup of colluvium at the base of a hillslope. Colluvium is typically loosely consolidated angular material located at the base of a steep hill slope or cliff. Colluvium accumulates as gently sloping aprons or fans, either at the base of or within gullies and hollows within hillslopes. These accumulations of colluvium can be several meters in thickness and often contain buried soils ( paleosols ), crude bedding, and cut and fill sequences. Thick accumulations of colluvium may preserve

1776-533: The best outcomes often near existing kelp forests, emphasizing the importance of preventing their decline. However, challenges persist, including the need for cost-effective methods, funding mechanisms, and adaptations to climate change. This restoration work not only supports ecological recovery but also offers significant social and economic benefits, aligning with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and underscores

1850-608: The biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower-level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are not limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests, sea otters ( Enhydra lutris ) control populations of herbivorous sea urchins through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of

1924-433: The coast and some islands of northern California up to Alaska. The rise of the sea level will increase soil erosion of these marine areas. (Coastal Areas Impacts and Adaptation) Depending on to what degree the sea level will rise, the introduction of salt water to the soil in the marine forest can slow and or destroy the growth of marine forest plants as well as the habitat of forest animals. Freshwater flow will greatly disrupt

1998-523: The coast of Northern California . The implementation of marine protected areas is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors. The term kelp refers to marine algae belonging to the order Laminariales (phylum: Ochrophyta ). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally. The most widely recognized species are

2072-505: The coast of Santa Barbara, California. The United Nations Environment Programme Norwegian Blue Forests Network 2023 report titled 'Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests' documents a global decline in kelp forests, with an annual reduction rate of 1.8%. Over the past 50 years, 40–60% of these ecosystems have degraded due to factors such as climate change, poor water quality, and overfishing . The report underscores

2146-628: The complexity of kelp forests – their variable structure, geography, and interactions – they pose a considerable challenge to environmental managers. Extrapolating even well-studied trends to the future is difficult because interactions within the ecosystem will change under variable conditions, not all relationships in the ecosystem are understood, and the nonlinear thresholds to transitions are not yet recognized. Major issues of concern include marine pollution and water quality , kelp harvesting and fisheries, invasive species , and climate change . The most pressing threat to kelp forest preservation may be

2220-634: The deep sea. The kelp then sinks to the ocean floor and store the carbon where is it unlikely to be disturbed by human activity. Researchers from the University of Western Australia estimated kelp forest around Australia sequestered 1.3-2.8 teragrams of carbon per year which is 27–34% of the total annual blue carbon sequestered in the Australian continent by tidal marshes , mangrove forests and seagrass beds . Every year 200 million tons of carbon dioxide are being sequestered by macroalgae such as kelp. Given

2294-409: The ecology of the Marine West Coast Forest. The trend seems to be that wet regions are getting wetter and the dry regions are getting drier. (Song) The Marine West Coastal Region is a wet region that will most likely see these increases in precipitation levels. The precipitation level increasing will change the stream chemistry of vital spawning areas for salmon. Spawning salmon are most successful when

Marine West Coast Forest - Misplaced Pages Continue

2368-551: The ecoregion. Several solutions have been enacted to solve the environmental threats of the Marine West Coast Forest. Public land ownership is positively correlated with environmental preservation, as seen by the parts of the ecoregion located in Alaska. When land is privately owned, the most effective measures are education of the beautiful natural areas, smart land use, and planned efficient growth. (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2006) The Marine West Coast Forests are located along

2442-420: The edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms. Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their food webs ), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and

2516-750: The giant kelps ( Macrocystis spp.), although numerous other genera such as Laminaria , Ecklonia , Lessonia , Nereocystis , Alaria , and Eisenia are described. A wide range of sea life uses kelp forests for protection or food, including fish. In the North Pacific kelp forests, particularly rockfish , and many invertebrates , such as amphipods , shrimp , marine snails , bristle worms , and brittle stars . Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales, sea otters , gulls, terns, snowy egrets , great blue herons , and cormorants, as well as some shore birds. Frequently considered an ecosystem engineer , kelp provides

2590-542: The global circulatory pattern. The main watersheds in the region are the Puget Sound and Columbia River Watershed . Due to the region’s proximity to the Pacific Ocean , this ecoregion experiences large amounts of precipitation annually, creating a very humid and wet climate. The majority of river and stream activity is directly influenced by the annual precipitation patterns. In the rainy season from October to May, most of

2664-465: The greater rate of ground water recharge (Moore, 765). The plants in this region are responsible for holding the geography and geology of the area intact. The north–south orientation of the mountain ranges combines with the moist polar air masses and mild westerlies coming eastward off the Pacific Ocean to form a weather pattern that dominates the area. This pattern consists of a temperate moist zone on

2738-559: The greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of San Francisco, California , to the Aleutian Islands , Alaska. Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of Laminaria have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters. This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be mostly due to insufficient nutrient levels associated with warm, oligotrophic waters. One recent study spatially overlaid

2812-538: The habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies. For example, in California, Macrocystis pyrifera forests, the nudibranch Melibe leonina , and skeleton shrimp Caprella californica are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch Brachyistius frenatus , rockfish Sebastes spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; brittle stars and turban snails Tegula spp. are closely associated with

2886-432: The industries that support these sports represent one benefit related to the ecosystem and the enjoyment derived from these activities represents another. All of these are examples of ecosystem services provided specifically by kelp forests. The Monterey Bay aquarium was the first aquarium to exhibit an alive kelp forest. Kelp forests grow in rocky places along the shore that are constantly eroding carrying material out to

2960-571: The influence of humans has often contributed to kelp forest degradation . Of particular concern are the effects of overfishing nearshore ecosystems, which can release herbivores from their normal population regulation and result in the overgrazing of kelp and other algae. This can rapidly result in transitions to barren landscapes where relatively few species persist. Already due to the combined effects of overfishing and climate change , kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as Tasmania 's east coast and

3034-484: The interactions surrounding them and the local environment as a whole. Direct benefits of MPAs to fisheries (for example, spillover effects) have been well documented around the world. Indirect benefits have also been shown for several cases among species such as abalone and fishes in Central California. Most importantly, MPAs can be effective at protecting existing kelp forest ecosystems and may also allow for

Marine West Coast Forest - Misplaced Pages Continue

3108-456: The intricacies of kelp forest dynamics using experimental manipulations. By working on smaller spatial-temporal scales, they can control for the presence or absence of specific biotic and abiotic factors to discover the operative mechanisms. For example, in southern Australia, manipulations of kelp canopy types demonstrated that the relative amount of Ecklonia radiata in a canopy could be used to predict understory species assemblages; consequently,

3182-410: The kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and benthic fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various gastropods , and echinoderms live over the encrusting coralline algae. In addition, pelagic fishes and marine mammals are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near

3256-444: The kelp itself results in the loss of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the keystone species that mediates this trophic cascade . In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes, such as

3330-482: The low elevation rivers and streams experience peak run off levels. Rivers and streams at higher elevation are more influenced by snow melt and therefore experience peak run off from late spring into early summer due to the snow melt. The permeability levels of bedrock in the area of interest dictate surface water in the region. Volcanic parent material, as found in Oregon , tends to result in lower levels of ground water due to

3404-455: The low permeability of the rock. Although areas with volcanic parent material may have fewer ground water aquifers, these areas tend to have better developed stream networks and higher stream drainage levels (Moore, 765). Areas with newer volcanic bedrock have higher levels of permeability, and are therefore more likely to have ground water aquifers. These areas will experience lower stream drainage densities and less developed stream networks due to

3478-579: The model, thus validating their approach. This suggests that their global model might actually be fairly accurate, and if so, kelp forests would be prolific in tropical subsurface waters worldwide. The importance of this contribution has been rapidly acknowledged within the scientific community and has prompted an entirely new trajectory of kelp forest research, highlighting the potential for kelp forests to provide marine organisms spatial refuge under climate change and providing possible explanations for evolutionary patterns of kelps worldwide. The architecture of

3552-424: The moderating effect of ocean bodies on air temperatures due to the constant influx of oceanic air influencing the marine west coast throughout the year. The marine west coast is located in the path of westerly winds from the ocean that contribute to its cloudy skies, significant amount of precipitation, and mild temperatures. The rainfall, seasons, and temperature are all dependent on each other and are all affected by

3626-514: The more dominant genera, Laminaria is mainly associated with both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and the coasts of China and Japan ; Ecklonia is found in Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa ; and Macrocystis occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern Pacific Ocean , Southern Ocean archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The region with

3700-431: The most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Although algal kelp forest combined with coral reefs only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global primary productivity . Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador . "I can only compare these great aquatic forests ... with

3774-606: The overfishing of coastal ecosystems, which by removing higher trophic levels facilitates their shift to depauperate urchin barrens. The maintenance of biodiversity is recognized as a way of generally stabilizing ecosystems and their services through mechanisms such as functional compensation and reduced susceptibility to foreign species invasions. More recently, the 2022 IPCC report states that kelp and other seaweeds in most regions are undergoing mass mortalities from high temperature extremes and range shifts from warming, as they are stationary and cannot adapt quick enough to deal with

SECTION 50

#1732837704412

3848-538: The proportion of E. radiata can be used as an indicator of other species occurring in the environment. Kelp forests have been important to human existence for thousands of years. Indeed, many now theorise that the first colonisation of the Americas was due to fishing communities following the Pacific kelp forests during the last ice age. One theory contends that the kelp forests that would have stretched from northeast Asia to

3922-474: The rapidly increasing temperature of the Earth and thus, the ocean. In many places, managers have opted to regulate the harvest of kelp and/or the taking of kelp forest species by fisheries. While these may be effective in one sense, they do not necessarily protect the entirety of the ecosystem. Marine protected areas (MPAs) offer a unique solution that encompasses not only target species for harvesting, but also

3996-451: The red alder. These differences are in direct correlation with the availability of oxygen, and other nutrients at higher elevations. The mountains also create rain-shadow areas due to the clouds having to release their precipitation in order to get over the mountains, or be blocked all together. Trees, which perform better under stress, grow in these areas such as the Douglas fir. As for the soil,

4070-415: The regeneration of those that have been affected. In the 2010s, Northern California lost 95% of its kelp ecosystems due to marine heatwaves. Kelp bed recovery efforts in California are primarily focusing on sea urchin removal, both by scuba divers, and by sea otters , which are natural predators. A brown alga, Sargassum horneri , an invasive species first spotted in 2003, has also been

4144-402: The region generally has a thin podzol soil, causing it to be extremely acidic. Farmers must compensate by applying fertilizers and lime to lower the acidic levels for agricultural viability. Digging even deeper the then soil within the region will reveal mostly igneous and sedimentary rock. Colluvium and morainal deposits make up most of the surface materials. Mountains, which so intensely affect

4218-463: The region, are massive formations resulting from upheaval caused by continental collisions The climate of the marine west coast forests is humid. According to the Köppen climate classification system, this climate is very damp throughout most of the year, receiving a great amount of rainfall along with heavy cloud cover. The marine climate can also be defined with its narrow range of temperatures throughout

4292-496: The requisite physical parameters for kelp with mean oceanographic conditions and produced a model predicting the existence of subsurface kelps throughout the tropics worldwide to depths of 200 m (660 ft). For a hotspot in the Galapagos Islands , the local model was improved with fine-scale data and tested; the research team found thriving kelp forests in all eight of their sampled sites, all of which had been predicted by

4366-598: The rocky intertidal. Another major area of kelp forest research has been directed at understanding the spatial-temporal patterns of kelp patches. Not only do such dynamics affect the physical landscape, but they also affect species that associate with kelp for refuge or foraging activities. Large-scale environmental disturbances have offered important insights concerning mechanisms and ecosystem resilience . Examples of environmental disturbances include: In addition to ecological monitoring of kelp forests before, during, and after such disturbances, scientists try to tease apart

4440-400: The same for the lower slopes. Erosion control is key to keeping the glacial valleys and their rivers free from silt build up, which has the ability to devastate the salmon population, as well as holding the integrity of the mountain ranges. Marine West Coast Forests combine aquatic ecosystems with temperate rainforests to provide habitat for an abundance of wildlife. The sea otter is considered

4514-512: The seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps Eisenia and Pterygophora reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical infrastructure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded middle, and darkened seafloor. Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on

SECTION 60

#1732837704412

4588-548: The species as endangered (BirdLife International 2012). Hard forest edges resulting from forest fragmentation greatly subject murrelet nests to corvid predation and other associated disturbances (Peery et al. 2004). Declines in areas where logging is not an issue can be explained by the overexploitation and subsequent collapse of the pacific sardine fishery. Nylon gill-nets in shallow waters and oil spills have cause considerable mortality, as well (Piatt & Naslund 1995). In response, conservation measures have been implemented to slow

4662-587: The species’ decline, including: the prevention of logging within identified breeding areas (Nelson 1997), the development of detailed research and recovery plans (Kaiser et al. 1994, CMMRT 2003, Escene 2007), and the protection of 179 square kilometers on Afognak Island by the Exxon Valdex Trustee Council (EVOSTC 1995). The Marine West Coast Forest's primary environmental threats are human development and population growth, logging, spruce bark beetle populations, and invasive species. This ecological region

4736-596: The state level to prevent kelp forest collapse in California were announced in July 2020. At the federal level, H.R. 4458, the Keeping Ecosystems Living and Productive (KELP) Act, introduced July 29, 2021, seeks to establish a new grant program within NOAA for kelp forest restoration. Ocean Rainforest, a Faroe Islands -based company, secured $ 4.5 million in U.S. government funding to grow giant kelp on an 86-acre farm off

4810-440: The stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column. The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock or sand), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual irradiance dose > 50 E m ). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic upwelling ,

4884-627: The strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation. The transition from macroalgal (i.e. kelp forest) to denuded landscapes dominated by sea urchins (or ‘ urchin barrens ’) is a widespread phenomenon, often resulting from trophic cascades like those described above; the two phases are regarded as alternative stable states of the ecosystem. The recovery of kelp forests from barren states has been documented following dramatic perturbations, such as urchin disease or large shifts in thermal conditions. Recovery from intermediate states of deterioration

4958-429: The subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment. This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher trophic levels . By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit

5032-454: The terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe so nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals and porpoise, would soon perish also; and lastly,

5106-413: The two are important in order to properly define the geomorphic processes that have occurred in a specific geological setting. Alluvium is sand, clay, or other similar detrital material deposited by running water. The distinction between colluvium and alluvium relates to the involvement of running water. Alluvium specifically refers to the geomorphic processes involved with flowing water and so alluvium

5180-548: The urgency of implementing global conservation efforts and emphasizes the need for international cooperation to adopt area-based management strategies. These strategies aim to mitigate the aforementioned impacts and enhance the resilience and sustainability of kelp forests. Kelp forest restoration, practiced in 16 countries over 300 years, has gained momentum, particularly from 2009 to 2019, involving diverse societal sectors such as academia, governments, and businesses. Large-scale restoration successes demonstrate its feasibility, with

5254-429: The water is cold and with a steady flow. (Coastal Areas Impacts & Adaptation) The rising temperature of the streams from rainfall instead of snowfall will be more likely to also develop and spread disease through salmon. (Coastal Areas Impacts & Adaptation) The estuaries, where the ocean and river water meet is a very vulnerable area. The rising sea level will bring more salt water into the estuaries. The salinity of

5328-505: The water will increase further up rivers and this can alter the mixing and flushing rates of the estuary, increasing pollution dramatically. The change of balance in an estuary will also decrease the buffer effect that estuaries have against storms. The following Level III ecoregions are nested within the Marine West Coast Forest: Colluvium Colluvium (also colluvial material or colluvial soil )

5402-453: The west side of the mountains and a drier moderate climate on the east side. The moist conditions along with glacial valleys cut by the glaciers allow for a variety of plant life to thrive. The softwood stands of the highlands are keystone species in maintaining land integrity. The ability of the firs and spruces to populate the high altitude and shallow soil works like glue to hold the soil in place. As you drop in altitude pines and cedars do

5476-473: The year. Precipitation is ample and consistent in the marine west coast, with many days of rainfall and a large annual accumulation. Many areas in the marine west coast climate have more than 150 days of rainfall per a year, along with averaging around 50 to 250 centimeters per a year of total rainfall. The average temperatures of areas within the marine west coast forests usually range from 10 °C to 15 °C. These mild temperatures are in collaboration with

#411588