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Kingdom of Mapungubwe

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The Shashe River (or Shashi River ) is a major left-bank tributary of the Limpopo River in Zimbabwe . It rises northwest of Francistown , Botswana and flows into the Limpopo River where Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa meet. The confluence is at the site of the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area .

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59-586: The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (pronounced / m ɑː ˈ p uː n ɡ uː b w eɪ / mah- POON -goob-weh ) was an ancient state located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers in South Africa, south of Great Zimbabwe . The capital's population was 5000 by 1250, and the state likely covered 30,000 km² (11,500 square miles). The kingdom exhibited sacral kingship closely associated with rainmaking , and exported gold and ivory to Swahili city-states on

118-420: A ceremony that took place on 20 November 2007. Skeletal Analysis has been done on the people of Mapungubwe to learn about their health and lifestyle. Findings include that the populations at Mapungubwe experienced mortality rates expected for a pre-industrial group (comparable to pre-industrial Europeans), with high mortality at youth but an expected 35-40 year life-span after adulthood is reached. Another finding

177-469: A food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metal die . Products made this way include breakfast cereals, including puffed grains and porridge , pasta shapes, and "rice". Pearl millet is also a vital feedstock for cattle, goats and chickens which can also be explored as an enterprise. Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably. To combat

236-419: A major cemetery was uncovered nearby the palace, which housed 23 graves. Most were buried with few or no accessories, with most adults buried with glass beads, however three were different. The first, known as the original gold burial, was buried with a wooden headrest and three objects all made from wood covered in gold foil; a divining bowl, a sceptre (likely a knobkerrie ), and a rhino . The second, likely

295-967: A naked caryopsis . Values are expressed on a dry matter basis. Pearl millet is commonly used to make bhakri flatbread. It is also boiled to make a Tamil porridge called kamban choru or kamban koozh . In Rajasthani cuisine bajre ki khatti rabdi is a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour and yogurt . It is usually made in summers to be served along with meals. Flatbreads made of pearl millet flour, known as bajhar ji maani or bajre ki roti (बाजरे की रोटी) in Punjab , Rajasthan and Haryana , bajrichi bhakri (बाजरीची भाकरी) in Maharashtra and bajra no rotlo (બાજરા નો રોટલો) in Gujarat , India, are served with various types of kadhi and bhaaji in meals. Bajhar ji maani prepared in Tharparkar, Sindh

354-490: A praise singer would tell everyone. Wives were viewed as a route to success and status, and as such the king had many, with the senior wife in charge. Some wives lived outside of the capital, to help maintain the network of alliances. Life in Mapungubwe was centred on family and farming. Special sites were created for initiation ceremonies, household activities, and other social functions. Cattle lived in kraals located close to

413-468: A protective circle. The kingdom was likely divided into a five-tiered hierarchy due to the wide spread of the population; family heads, headmen , petty chiefs, senior chiefs, and the king. The king slept in a small wooden hut, in a supposedly secret location. Visitors were secluded from the king. His entourage included soldiers and praise singers , along with musicians who played mbiras and xylophones . His actions were ritualised, such that if he sneezed,

472-553: A trance and go into the spirit world themselves to capture the animals associated with rain. The community at K2 chose the San rather than the Zhizo, their political rivals, because the San did not believe in ancestors, and by not acknowledging the Zhizo's ancestors they would not be held to ransom by them. Hilltops with streams at their base were used as rainmaking sites. As the society became more complex, houses and shrines were built on hills, with

531-511: A woman, was buried facing west with over 100 gold bangles, 12,000 gold beads, and 26,000 glass beads. The third, likely a tall middle-aged man, was also buried facing west, and with a necklace of gold beads and cowrie shells , and various objects covered in gold foil, including a crocodile. In 2007, the South African Government gave the green light for the skeletal remains that were excavated in 1933 to be reburied on Mapungubwe Hill in

590-544: Is a common food across the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into a gruel and consumed along with buttermilk or consumed as dosa or idly . Pearl millet is called bajra in Northern Indian states. There was a time when pearl millets along with finger millets and sorghum were

649-451: Is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used in Borno state and its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop. In Namibia , pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is the staple food . In

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708-579: Is a road bridge and a rail bridge south of Francistown . The lower Shashe River forms the border between Botswana and Zimbabwe and is unbridged. However, at Tuli , both sides of the river are in Zimbabwe and there are two legal crossing points. The Shashi runs through the Shashi Irrigation Scheme and the Tuli Block . The Shashe River is dammed near Francistown at Shashe Dam . The original purpose

767-654: Is a sand filled channel, with extensive alluvial aquifers in the river channel and below the alluvial plains. These supply water for a number of irrigation schemes including Sibasa and Shashi . More than two million years ago , the Upper Zambezi River used to flow south through what is now the Makgadikgadi Pan (presently a vast seasonal wetland) to the Shashe River and thence the Limpopo River . There

826-449: Is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations. The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed resources in Africa, Russia, India and China. Today, pearl millet is grown on over 260,000 square kilometres (100,000 sq mi) of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets. World production of millets has been stable during

885-399: Is classified as either globular or lanceolate and hexagonal. Most of the millets are very similar to each other in basic structures, although there are some very specific differences. The composition of variety Changara of pearl millet can be affected by both environment and genetics. Pearl millet usually has higher protein and fat contents than sorghum or other millets because the kernel is

944-1000: Is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is evaluating crop wild relatives and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement. A 2015 study provided a genetic map . Insect pests include Anoecia corni , An. cornicola , Anoecia fulviabdominalis , An. vagans , Aphis gossypii , Forda hirsuta , F. orientalis , Geoica utricularia , Hysteroneura setariae , Melanaphis sacchari , Protaphis middletonii , Rhopalosiphum maidis , R. rufiabdominale , Schizaphis graminum , Sipha elegans , Sipha maydis , Sitobion avenae , Sit. leelamaniae , Sit. pauliani , Tetraneura africana , Tetraneura basui , Tetraneura fusiformis , and T. yezoensis . The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to

1003-712: Is not known. The site and capital was called Mapungubwe following archaeological naming conventions, and extended to the kingdom. Mapungubwe means "a place of (many) jackals ". In various Bantu languages , "-pungubwe" refers to jackals. Jackal is "phunguwe" in Venda , while in Northern Sotho it is "phukubje". The region was inhabited by the San for some 100,000 years. The origins of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe lie in Leopard's Kopje . Motivated by

1062-415: Is possible the old village was burnt down to make way for a new one. Mapungubwe Hill became the sole rainmaking hill, and its habitation by the leader emphasised a link between himself and rainmaking, which was substantial in the development of sacral kingship . The hill had been inhabited by the San long ago and a rock shelter on the east side featured some of their art. The first king had their palace on

1121-554: Is reported as a millet pest, as well as Dysdercus volkeri , Heliocheilus albipunctella , Coniesta ignefusalis , and caterpillars of Amsacta moloneyi and Helicoverpa armigera . In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations of Hycleus species, including Hycleus terminatus (syn. Mylabris afzelli ), Hycleus fimbriatus (syn. Mylabris fimbriatus ), Hycleus hermanniae (syn. Coryna hermanniae ), and Hycleus chevrolati (syn. Coryna chevrolati ), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops. In South India, pests include

1180-492: Is served with various types of kadhi and bhaaji. In Namibia, pearl millet flour is used to make Oshifima , a staple food in northern part of Namibia. India is the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE. It is currently unknown how it made its way to India, but it likely arrived originally from across Africa, and via the Red Sea during Indus Valley Trade networks. Rajasthan

1239-628: Is that the people of Mapungubwe grew well, without a notable frequency of chronic infections, though children sometimes were found with anaemia . The site is claimed by both the Vhavenda and the Tshivhula/Sembola , possibly incentivised by the land claims process initiated by the South African government, which has seen various groups dishonestly claim land. Neither of their estimated migration histories, or those of their clans, line up neatly with

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1298-615: Is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1. Sajje is the local name of the pearl millet in Karnataka and is mostly grown in the semiarid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called 'sajje rotti' and is eaten with yennegai (stuffed brinjal ) and yogurt . Kambu is the Tamil name of pearl millet and

1357-467: Is usually grown as an intercrop with sorghum and cowpea , the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa,

1416-849: The Dagbani language of Ghana, 'Zuk' in Tyap of Nigeria, 'Mawele' in Swahili , 'Mwere' in Meru language of Kenya, 'Mahangu' in Kwanyama of Namibia. Sona in Fur Language of Darfur, Sudan. Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by drought , low soil fertility, low moisture, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other cereal crops, such as maize or wheat , would not survive. Pearl millet

1475-781: The Dikgatlhong Dam impounds the Shashe near the village of Robelela , completed in December 2011. When full it will hold 400,000,000 cubic metres (1.4 × 10  cu ft). The next largest dam in Botswana, the Gaborone Dam , has capacity of 141,000,000 cubic metres (5.0 × 10  cu ft). A pipeline from the Dikgatlhong Dam will connect to the North-South Carrier (NSC) pipeline at

1534-480: The Indian Ocean trade created unprecedented inequalities, evolving over time from a society based on social ranking to one based on social classes . K2's spatial arrangement became unsuited to this development. Amid a harsh drought which likely troubled the society, royal elites moved the capital to Mapungubwe and settled its flat-topped summit around 1220, while most people settled at the foot of Mapungubwe Hill. It

1593-532: The Indian Ocean trade via Sofala . It is unknown what caused Mapungubwe's collapse. Trading routes shifted north towards the Zambezi as traders travelled it to reach the gold-producing interior, which would have dramatically hurt Mapungubwe's economy. It is plausible confidence was lost in the leadership amid the deepening material and spiritual divide between commoners and the king, and a breakdown in common purpose, provoking people to "vote with their feet". The basin

1652-528: The Mopane District , heard a legend of "a white man gone wild, who had lived a hermit's life in a cave on the banks of the Limpopo" in the late 19th century who "climbed the sacred hill and found things there". After several years of searching for the treasure, they set out again accompanied by a team including an unnamed African guide. They uncovered pottery fragments and artefacts of copper, glass, and gold, and

1711-448: The Zhizo moved west to settle Toutswe in modern day Botswana. Some scholars believe their relations to have been hostile, however others insist they were more complex, both socially and politically. Leopard's Kopje people spoke an early form of Shona , likely Kalanga (western Shona). K2 was the capital, and was likely divided into residential areas under the authority of a family head, with

1770-428: The ivory trade , some Zhizo people moved south around 900 to settle Schroda , near the Limpopo River . The San were largely driven off their ancestral lands. Early San society left a rich legacy of cave paintings across Southern Africa. The Zhizo herded cattle and engaged in farming. They traded and possibly hunted with the San, who lived in different settlements. Schroda was likely the Zhizo's capital due to being

1829-451: The 1980s. According to FAO, 39.4 million hectares (97 million acres) of millet were planted in 1987 with an average production of only 704 kilograms per hectare (628 lb/acre). Pearl millet varieties from the world collection probably have more variation in physical characteristics than any other millet. Kernel shape has different classifications: obovate, hexagonal, lanceolate , globular and elliptical. In Africa, pearl millet

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1888-531: The BPT1 break pressure tank at Moralane . The NSC will take the water south to Gaborone . Citations Sources Pearl millet Pearl millet ( Cenchrus americanus , commonly known as the synonym Pennisetum glaucum ) is the most widely grown type of millet . It has been grown in Africa and the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of domestication , for

1947-642: The East African coast into the Indian Ocean trade . Although traditionally assumed to have been the first kingdom in Southern Africa, excavations in the same region at Mapela Hill show evidence for sacral kingship nearly 200 years earlier. Following unknown events and shifting trade routes north around 1300, Mapungubwe's population scattered. In the present day they are often associated with the Shona , Tshivhula , and Venda peoples. Despite locals having knowledge of

2006-696: The belief that Afrikaners were "champions of civilisation". As happened similarly with Great Zimbabwe , the government attempted to hide, discredit, and "protect" the site. The site was declared a national monument in the 1980s. The area is now part of the Mapungubwe National Park , which in turn is contained in the UNESCO Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape and the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area . The Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape

2065-607: The burial of a highly decorated person. The younger Van Graan, a former student of the University of Pretoria , reported the discovery to an archaeologist. The University of Pretoria, at the time an exclusively Afrikaner institution, gained the rights to the treasure, and the Hertzog government monopolised the site. The discovery contradicted the White supremacist myth that Africa was a dark and backward continent in need of "saving", as well as

2124-603: The chief having the largest area. Women worked copper , while men worked iron . They cultivated sorghum , pearl millet , finger millet , ground beans, and cowpeas . The population expanded, and K2 had a population of 1500 by 1200. Rainmaking was widespread, and the chief sometimes hired strangers who were believed to have special relationships with the spirits of the land, such as the San , due to their longer habitation. Likewise some Zhizo who remained at Leokwe , likely subordinate to K2, specialised in rituals also due to their longer habitation. The large wealth generated by

2183-642: The crop is in the Sahel zone of West Africa . Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern Mali between 2500 and 2000 BC. 2023 was the International Year of Millets , declared by the United Nations General Assembly in 2021. Pearl millet has ovoid grains of 3–4 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 5 ⁄ 32  in) length,

2242-547: The dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such as maize . The regions in which this crop is produced are: Zambezi, Kavango East, Kavango West, Ohangwena, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, and; in parts of the Otjozondjupa region, in the Tsumkwe area. Mahangu is usually made into a porridge called "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), or fermented to make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu". Traditionally,

2301-445: The kingdom were buried in hills. Royal wives lived in their own area away from the king. Important men maintained prestigious homes on the outskirts of the capital. This type of spatial division occurred first at Mapungubwe but would be replicated in later Butua and Rozwi states. The growth in population at Mapungubwe may have led to full-time specialists in ceramics, specifically pottery. Gold objects were uncovered in elite burials on

2360-1004: The largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not including sorghum ). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g. The height of the plant ranges from 0.5–4 metres (1 ft 8 in – 13 ft 1 in). Also known as 'Bajra' in Hindi and Urdu , 'Sajje' in Kannada , 'Kambu' in Tamil , 'Sajjalu' in Telugu , 'Bajeer' in Kumaoni , 'Bajri' in Gujarati and 'Maiwa' in Hausa , 'Mexoeira' in Mozambique , 'Baajri' in Marathi , 'Za' in

2419-585: The mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material of termite mounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing. After pounding, winnowing may be used to remove the chaff . Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated by Namib Mills . Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing using food extrusion and other methods. In

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2478-595: The most populated (around 500). The chief was the wealthiest, and accumulated cattle through court fines, forfeits, tributes, raids, and the high price of marrying one of his daughters. The Zhizo made elaborate pottery with diverse styles, for which they were named after. Figurines were used as props in school lessons. They traded ivory, gold, rhino skins, leopard skins, and iron to coastal cities such as Chibuene in exchange for glass beads, cotton and silk cloths, and glazed ceramics. Around 1000, some Leopard's Kopje people moved south to settle Bambandyanalo (known as K2), as

2537-517: The orders Coleoptera , Lepidoptera , Diptera , and Hemiptera , as well as Orthoptera adults, are persistent pearl millet pests in the Sahel . The following pest species are reported for northern Mali. Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in the Dogon country of Mali are Oedaleus senegalensis , Kraussaria angulifera , Cataloipus cymbiferus , and Diabolocatantops axillaris . In northern Ghana, Poophilus costalis (spittle bug)

2596-554: The palace would have likely been a gift for allowing foreigners to trade. By the end of the 13th century, traders regularly bypassed Sofala and Mapungubwe by travelling the Zambezi River (north of the Limpopo ) into the gold producing interior, as Quelimane and Angoche became the main trading hubs. This precipitated the rise of Great Zimbabwe . Spatial organisation in the kingdom of Mapungubwe, termed dzimbahwe in Shona , involved

2655-406: The practice becoming institutionalised. At Mapungubwe, the elite tried to change the place of practice from a group of hills to one; Mapungubwe Hill, with the royal family the ritual specialists, signifying a step away from the role of ancestors. Mapungubwe traded locally with Toutswe and Eiland among others, however a major source of their wealth came from the Indian Ocean trade . An early link

2714-637: The problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron- biofortified pearl millets which is bred conventionally without genetic modification to a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group. Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes (including 31 wild genotypes) have been sequenced, identifying the genetic diversity of this staple crop and aiding breeding to select for particular characteristics. A reference genotype of pearl millet ( Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5 ) has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for wax biosynthesis , which

2773-555: The residents' houses, signifying their value. Courts belonged to the leader, however he would not have been there, but rather in ritual seclusion on the hilltop. A brother would have likely been in charge, and would have been the second most powerful person in the kingdom. Only men of high status were allowed to smelt and work copper and gold. These metals were associated with power, wealth, and fertility, and only elites would have possessed gold. While most had access to iron tools, poorer farmers made use of stone and bone tools. Elites within

2832-399: The royal hill. Rainmaking , or rain control, intended to induce rain and prevent both droughts and floods. It was based on the belief that humans could influence nature, spirits, or the ancestors who withheld or brought rain. The San , who were believed to have closer connections to the old spirits of the land, were often turned to by other societies for rainmaking. San shamans would enter

2891-567: The site, Mapungubwe was popularly rediscovered when, on New Year's Eve 1933, a farmer set out to follow up on a legend he had heard about. The Mapungubwe Collection of artefacts found at the archaeological site is housed in the Mapungubwe Museum in Pretoria . The site is located in the Mapungubwe National Park in South Africa , on the border with Zimbabwe and Botswana . Its original name

2950-532: The staple food crops in these states but it reduced to a mere cattle fodder crop after the Green Revolution in the 1960s. The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lost crop. Pearl millet is an important food across the Sahel region of Africa. It is a main staple (along with sorghum ) in a large region of northern Nigeria , Niger , Mali and Burkina Faso . In Nigeria it

3009-498: The timeline of the site. Mapungubwe's population are regarded as the "cultural ancestors" of the Shona and Venda. Locals had knowledge of the site through their oral histories , and considered the site imbued with the power and presence of ancestral kings, warned by their oral traditions against visiting or even pointing at the hill for fear of something terrible happening. The site was visited by European researchers led by Leo Frobenius in 1929. The Van Graans, who were farmers in

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3068-406: The use of stone walls to demarcate important areas, embedding class distinction and providing ritual seclusion for the king. There was a stone-walled residence likely occupied by the principal councillor. Stone and wood were used together. There would have also been a wooden palisade surrounding Mapungubwe Hill. Most of the capital's population would have lived inside the western wall. In the 1930s

3127-435: The western part of the hill, and it included a room where the king could receive visitors, and another where the visitors could be vetted, as well as a hut for the king's special diviner . By 1250, Mapungubwe had a population of 5000, with settlements all around the hill, forming a protective circle. The second king had their palace in the middle of the hill, with the same arrangements as his predecessor, however his visitor room

3186-486: Was abandoned as people scattered northwest and south. They didn't regroup. To the north near the Zambezi, Great Zimbabwe , on the fringe of the Mapungubwe state and with a distinct population, rose to become its successor, adopting the same elitist spatial arrangement and sacred leadership. Over the course of settlement at K2, their society transitioned from a society based on social ranking to one based on social classes , and

3245-508: Was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 3 July 2003. Shashe River The Shashe is a highly ephemeral river, with flow generally restricted to a few days of the year. The river contributes 12.2% of the mean annual runoff of the Limpopo Basin. Major tributaries of the Shashe River include the Simukwe , Shashani , Thuli , Tati and Ramokgwebana rivers. The lower Shashe

3304-608: Was divided so as to separate visitors from the king, who would have spoken through an intermediary. The king had many wives, with some living outside of the capital to help maintain the network of alliances. The economy was based on agriculture, and to make more productive use of the land, cattle (previously held as the primary identifier of wealth) were herded away from the capital and permitted to graze on other communities' land, forming social and political ties and increasing Mapungubwe's influence. They traded locally with Toutswe and Eiland among others, and gold and ivory were exported to

3363-406: Was one of the first class-based social systems and examples of sacral kingship in southern Africa. The leader and elites inhabited the hilltop, with the population below. There were four paths up the hill, with the main one guarded by soldiers, who were called the "eye" of the king. Settlements were divided into residential areas under the authority of family heads , and surrounded the hill, forming

3422-583: Was to supply water to the industrial city of Selebi-Phikwe . In 1982 it was found that groundwater from the local wells in Francistown had high levels of nitrate, and was also inadequate to meet public demand, so the public water supply for that city was changed over to using water from the Shashe Dam. The dam also supplies water to surrounding villages, Phoenix Mine (Tati Nickel Mining Company/Norilsk Nickel) and Mupane Gold Mine (IAMGOLD). Further downstream,

3481-406: Was with Chibuene . After Chibuene burnt down, Sofala became the main trading port, which was frequented by Arab merchants, due to higher demand for gold from the 10th century following various Muslim, European, and Indian states issuing gold coinage. Mapungubwe exported gold and ivory, while a large number of glass beads were imported from India and Southeast Asia . The Chinese celadon found at

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