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112-468: The Observatorio Manuel Foster , or Manuel Foster Observatory , is an astronomical observatory constructed on Cerro San Cristóbal near Santiago, Chile in 1903. This site was originally known as the D. O. Mills Observatory after the philanthropist Darius Ogden Mills . It was built as an offshoot of the Lick Observatory to observe stars in the southern hemisphere, and, under the direction of

224-483: A 14-metre (46 ft) statue of the Virgin Mary . Today, the statue is visible from various points in the city. However, the shrine was not completed until several decades later. The 1910 Chile Centennial celebrations marked the beginning of several urban development projects. The railway network was expanded, connecting the city and its growing suburbs with a new ring and route to Cajón del Maipo . A new railway station

336-486: A heated discussion about the actual implementation of mandatory earthquake standards in the city's modern architecture. Despite urban integration efforts, socioeconomic inequality and geosocial fragmentation remain two of the most important problems, both in the city and in the country. These problems have been considered one of the factors that led to the " Estallido Social " , a series of massive protests and severe riots carried out between 2019 and 2020. The protests led to

448-473: A layer of smog blanketed the city. In response, the authorities implemented legislative measures to reduce industrial pollution and placed restrictions on vehicle use. To address the problem of transportation, the metro system underwent significant expansion, with lines being extended and three new lines added between 1997 and 2006 in the southeastern sector. In 2011, a new extension was inaugurated in Maipú, bringing

560-536: A lower limit of about magnitude 7.0. By late 1909, 2,700 photographic plates had been produced. 48 candidate spectroscopic binaries had been identified, along with several stars with high proper motion . During February and March, 1909, the telescope was used to observe Comet Morehouse . On June 5, Joseph H. Moore arrived at Santiago to take charge of the observatory. Curtis departed for California on June 17, and Paddock left in July, to be succeeded by Roscoe F. Sanford . By

672-678: A north–south direction and 35 km (22 mi) from east to west. The Mapocho River flows through the city. The city is flanked by the main chain of the Andes to the east and the Chilean Coastal Range to the west. On the north, it is bordered by the Cordón de Chacabuco , a mountain range of the Andes. At the southern border lies the Angostura de Paine , an elongated spur of the Andes that almost reaches

784-567: A powerful earthquake struck the city on 3 March 1985, causing minimal casualties but leaving many homeless and destroying numerous historic buildings. With the onset of the transition to democracy in 1990, the city of Santiago surpassed four million inhabitants, with the majority residing in the south, particularly in La Florida, which was the most populous area, followed by Puente Alto and Maipú. The real estate development in these municipalities, as well as in others such as Quilicura and Peñalolén,

896-585: A remote 5,640 m (18,500 ft) mountaintop in the Atacama Desert of Chile. The oldest proto-observatories, in the sense of an observation post for astronomy, The oldest true observatories, in the sense of a specialized research institute , include: Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space , many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of

1008-518: A serious civil confrontation, which led to thousands of arrests and accusations of human rights violations. Meanwhile, the demonstrations registered serious episodes of violence against public and private infrastructure, mainly in the surroundings of Plaza Baquedano , with the Santiago Metro being one of the most affected by these episodes: more than half of its stations registered damage (several being partially set on fire) and only eleven months later

1120-428: A slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the entire upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes. For optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid

1232-503: A spare 92 cm (36.25 in) silvered parabolic glass mirror in its possession, but the shape was imperfect. After deciding on a Cassegrain-style reflecting telescope , during the spring of 1901 the mirror was shipped to the John A. Brashear Company in Allegheny for refiguring . However, the mirror broke while the central hole was being cut, so a new mirror had to be ordered. The mount

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1344-419: A week at the absolute reference point calibration measurements are performed. Example magnetic observatories include: Example seismic observation projects and observatories include: Example gravitational wave observatories include: A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts the monitoring of a volcano as well as research in order to understand the potential impacts of active volcanism. Among

1456-833: Is a facility which precisely measures the total intensity of Earth's magnetic field for field strength and direction at standard intervals. Geomagnetic observatories are most useful when located away from human activities to avoid disturbances of anthropogenic origin, and the observation data is collected at a fixed location continuously for decades. Magnetic observations are aggregated, processed, quality checked and made public through data centers such as INTERMAGNET . The types of measuring equipment at an observatory may include magnetometers (torsion, declination-inclination fluxgate, proton precession, Overhauser-effect), variometer (3-component vector, total-field scalar), dip circle , inclinometer , earth inductor, theodolite , self-recording magnetograph, magnetic declinometer, azimuth compass. Once

1568-444: Is a scientific institution whose main task is to make observations in the fields of meteorology, geomagnetism and tides that are important for the navy and civil shipping. An astronomical observatory is usually also attached. Some of these observatories also deal with nautical weather forecasts and storm warnings, astronomical time services, nautical calendars and seismology. Example marine observatories include: A magnetic observatory

1680-720: Is headed by a provincial delegate appointed by the President of the Republic, and it is also part of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, governed by a popularly elected governor . When the term Santiago is used without further clarification, it typically refers to Gran Santiago (Greater Santiago), the metropolitan area characterized by continuous urban development. This area includes the commune of Santiago and over 40 other communes, encompassing much of Santiago Province and parts of neighboring provinces . The definition of

1792-406: Is housed inside a rotating dome. In 1897, the astronomer William Wallace Campbell , assisted by William H. Wright , began a program of measuring the radial velocity of all stars in the northern hemisphere having an apparent visual magnitude of 5.51 or brighter. This task was facilitated by the newly installed Mills spectrograph , which was attached to the 91 cm (36 in) telescope at

1904-648: Is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture . However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope

2016-599: Is the Mauna Kea Observatory , located near the summit of a 4,205 m (13,796 ft) volcano in Hawaiʻi. The Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m (17,160 ft), was the world's highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now been surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory , an optical-infrared telescope on

2128-534: Is the Tupungato mountain at 6,570 m (21,555 ft). Other mountains include Tupungatito , San José , and Maipo . Cerro El Plomo is the highest mountain visible from Santiago's urban area. During recent decades, urban growth has outgrown the boundaries of the city, expanding to the east up the slopes of the Andean Precordillera . In areas such as La Dehesa, Lo Curro, and El Arrayan, urban development

2240-521: Is the capital and largest city of Chile and one of the largest cities in the Americas . It is located in the country's central valley and is the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region , which has a population of seven million, representing 40% of Chile's total population. Most of the city is situated between 500–650 m (1,640–2,133 ft) above sea level . Founded in 1541 by

2352-468: The Apostle James , the patron saint of Spain. The city was established near Huelén, which Valdivia renamed Santa Lucía. He assigned the city's layout to master builder Pedro de Gamboa , who designed a grid plan . At its center, Gamboa placed a Plaza Mayor , which became the town's central hub. Surrounding the plaza, plots were designated for the cathedral , the jail, and the governor's house . The city

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2464-519: The Arauco War . Santiago was left vulnerable, and a coalition of Mapuche and Picunche tribes led by chief Michimalonco destroyed the city on 11 September 1541, despite the efforts of a Spanish garrison of 55 soldiers defending the fort. The defense was led by Spanish conquistadora Inés de Suárez . When she realized they were being overpowered, she ordered the execution of all indigenous prisoners, displaying their heads on pikes and throwing some towards

2576-600: The Army of the Andes emerged victorious at the Battle of Chacabuco and restored the patriot government in Santiago. However, independence was still uncertain. The Spanish army achieved further victories in 1818 and advanced toward Santiago, but their progress was finally halted at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818, on the Maipo River plains. With the end of the war, Bernardo O'Higgins

2688-578: The Edificio Diego Portales was constructed in 1972. In 1967, the new Pudahuel International Airport was opened, and after years of discussion, construction of the Santiago Metro began in 1969. The first phase of the Metro, which ran beneath the western section of Alameda, was opened in 1975 and soon became one of the most prestigious buildings in the city. Over the following years, the Metro continued to expand, with two perpendicular lines in place by

2800-618: The Lick Observatory . This instrument was specifically designed for photographing stellar spectra , and was made possible by a grant from the banker Darius O. Mills . It saw first use in May 1895 and proved highly successful, improving accuracy by an order of magnitude over previous instruments. The design included three prisms and an iron arc comparison system. However, there were flexure and light loss issues that limited its capabilities. By 1903, an improved design allowed measurements of stars at fainter magnitudes. In 1894 Campbell first recognized

2912-491: The National Stadium emerged in 1938. In the following decades, Santiago continued to grow at an unprecedented rate. In 1940, the city had a population of 952,075 residents, which increased to 1,350,409 by 1952, and reached 1,907,378 in the 1960 census. This growth was reflected in the urbanization of rural areas on the outskirts of the city, where middle and lower-class families with stable housing were established. In 1930,

3024-620: The Picunche people (as they were known to Chileans) or the Promaucae (as referred to by the Incas) were under Inca rule from the late 15th century to the early 16th century. The Incas established a settlement of mitimas in the valley, located in the center of present-day Santiago, with fortifications such as Huaca de Chena and the El Plomo hill sanctuary. According to Chilean historian Armando de Ramón ,

3136-407: The Picunche people who lived in the area. Valdivia later called a meeting with the local chiefs, during which he explained his plan to establish a city on behalf of Charles IV of Spain . The city would serve as the capital of his governorship of Nueva Extremadura . On 12 February 1541, Valdivia officially founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo ( Santiago of New Extremadura ) in honor of

3248-467: The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy use airplanes to observe in the infrared , which is absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere. High-altitude balloons for X-ray astronomy have been used in a variety of countries. Example underground, underwater or under ice neutrino observatories include: Example meteorological observatories include: A marine observatory

3360-856: The Teatro Municipal opera house and the Club Hípico de Santiago . In addition, the 1875 International Exposition was held in the Quinta Normal grounds. Santiago emerged as the central hub of the national railway system. On 14 September 1857, the first railway arrived in the city and terminated at the Santiago Estación Central railway station , which was under construction at the time and officially opened in 1884. During this period, rail lines connected Santiago to Valparaíso and regions in northern and southern Chile. The streets of Santiago were also paved, and by 1875, there were 1,107 railway cars in

3472-521: The Universidad Católica de Chile in 1928. At that time it was the largest operational telescope in the southern hemisphere and the tenth largest in the world. During the 1940s, it was used by the German astronomer Erich P. Heilmeier for the spectroscopic study of Beta Cephei and other variable stars . Because of the growth of the Santiago metropolis, observing conditions grew steadily worse. Part of

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3584-409: The church of San Francisco in 1572. Both of these structures were primarily made of adobe and stone. In addition to the construction of significant buildings, the city began to thrive as the surrounding areas welcomed tens of thousands of livestock. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the growth of the city was hindered by a series of disasters including an earthquake , a smallpox epidemic in 1575,

3696-508: The constellation of Hercules not far from the present day estimated position of (α = 271°, δ = 30°) and velocity 19.7 km/s . The observatory remained in operation under Lick observatory control until 1928, with about 10,700 spectrograms being produced. The results of the observation program from both hemispheres were published at that time. The observatory was purchased by the Chilean lawyer Manuel Foster Recabarren , who then donated it to

3808-463: The declination axis , which had proven difficult to move. Two new spectrograms were built for studying fainter stars, a refrigeration unit was provided for keeping the dome artificially chilled in the evening, and an apparatus was assembled for rapidly silvering the mirror. The first resilvering of the mirror occurred in March 1906. Following this, exposure times were reduced by 40%. However, the efficiency of

3920-418: The ministries and other public services, as well as the start of the construction of medium-rise buildings. Meanwhile, the traditional residents of the center began to migrate to more rural areas like Providencia and Ñuñoa, which attracted the oligarchy and European immigrant professionals, and San Miguel for middle-class families. Additionally, in the periphery, villas were built by various organizations of

4032-617: The southwestern United States , Hawaii , Canary Islands , the Andes , and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra . Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the US, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory and Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile . Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that

4144-474: The spiral nebulae . After four years in charge, Moore returned to California in 1913, being replaced by Ralph E. Wilson as of August 1, the same year. Sanford remained behind for two more years, departing in June 1915. Full funding by Ogden Mills ended in 1917, and the remaining period was financed by fourteen friends of the observatory, which included Mills. Wilson was assisted by math instructor Arthur A. Scott from

4256-489: The 1980s when the government embraced a neoliberal economic model. In 1979, the master plan was revised, expanding the urban area to over 62,000 hectares for real estate development. This led to urban sprawl , particularly in La Florida , causing the city to reach 40,619 hectares in size in the early 1990s. According to the 1992 census, Santiago became the country's most populous municipality, with 328,881 residents. Tragically,

4368-504: The American astronomer W. W. Campbell , was used in an extensive project to determine the apex of the Sun's motion through space. The initial funding for the project financed operations for a two year period. Because Campbell had been seriously injured, the expedition was headed up by his assistant, William H. Wright . After setting up the telescope and the observation dome, the instrument quality

4480-466: The Chilean government, who had agreed to assist by prior arrangement. After a search for a suitable site for the observatory, the middle rise of the Cerro San Cristóbal was settled upon as the best location for meeting Campbell's general requirements. This ridge is located in the northeastern suburbs of Santiago, with a height of around 262 metres (860 ft) above the city. This placed it above

4592-528: The Congress mostly meets in nearby Valparaíso . In Chile, several entities share the name Santiago , which can often lead to confusion. The commune of Santiago , also referred to as Santiago Centro , is an administrative division encompassing the area occupied by the city during colonial times. It is governed by the Municipality of Santiago and led by a mayor. This commune is part of Santiago Province , which

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4704-721: The Instituto Ingles in Santiago, beginning in 1913 until he resigned June, 1917, then by Charles M. Huffer . During June 1918, Wilson resigned his position and returned to the United States, whereupon he was engaged in war service constructing aircraft in Dayton, Ohio for use by the United States in World War I . This left Huffer alone at the station, as Paddock was not given permission by the military authorities for that service. Huffer ran

4816-578: The Mapocho River floods in 1590, 1608, and 1618, and a devastating earthquake on 13 May 1647 which resulted in the death of over 600 people and affected over 5,000 others. Despite these setbacks, the capital of the Captaincy General of Chile continued to grow, with all the power of the country being centered on the Plaza de Armas in Santiago. In 1767, the corregidor Luis Manuel de Zañartu launched one of

4928-674: The Normal School of Preceptors, the School of Arts and Crafts, and the Quinta Normal . The latter comprised the Museum of Fine Arts (now the Museum of Science and Technology) and the National Museum of Natural History . These institutions were established primarily for educational purposes, but also served as examples of public planning during that period. In 1851, the first telegraph system connecting

5040-521: The Santiago basin around the 10th millennium BC. These groups were primarily nomadic hunter-gatherers, traveling from the coast to the interior to hunt guanacos during the Andean snowmelt. By around 800 AD, the first permanent settlers established agricultural communities along the Mapocho River , where they cultivated crops such as maize , potatoes , and beans , and domesticated camelids. The villages of

5152-593: The Spanish conquistador Pedro de Valdivia , Santiago has served as the capital city of Chile since colonial times. The city features a downtown core characterized by 19th-century neoclassical architecture and winding side streets with a mix of art deco, neo-gothic, and other styles. Santiago's cityscape is defined by several stand-alone hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River , which is lined by parks such as Parque Bicentenario , Parque Forestal , and Parque de la Familia . The Andes Mountains are visible from most parts of

5264-500: The University for research and instruction. Particular attention was paid to the study of RS CVn variables , Wolf–Rayet stars , and Beta Cephei stars. In 1986, observations of Halley's Comet were made for the general public, then of the supernova SN 1987A in 1984. However, the observation quality became degraded over time due to the growth of the city and its light pollution . The observatory ceased operations altogether in 1995, and

5376-488: The additional time to make spectrographic measurements of nebulae in the southern hemisphere. These would supplement the previous measurement of 13 nebulae made by James E. Keeler in the northern hemisphere. Observations of 12 nebulae in the Greater Magellanic Cloud indicated that this formation was receding with a velocity of 250 to 300 km/s (160 to 190 mi/s), which suggested that it may be related to

5488-561: The area served as a base for failed Inca expeditions to the south and was a junction along the Inca Trail . Pedro de Valdivia , a conquistador from Extremadura sent by Francisco Pizarro from Peru , arrived in the Mapocho valley on 13 December 1540, after a long journey from Cusco . Valdivia and his party camped by the river on the slopes of the Tupahue hill and gradually began interacting with

5600-466: The aristocracy lost much of its power, and the middle class, composed of merchants, bureaucrats, and professionals, acquired the role of setting national policy. In this context, Santiago began to develop a substantial middle- and lower-class population, while the upper classes sought refuge in the districts of the capital. Thus, the old moneyed class, who previously frequented Cousiño and Alameda Park, lost their hegemony over popular entertainment venues, and

5712-583: The attackers. In response to this brutal act, the indigenous forces dispersed in fear. The city was gradually rebuilt, with the newly established city of Concepción gaining political prominence as the Royal Audiencia of Chile was established there in 1565. However, the ongoing threat of the Arauco War and frequent earthquakes delayed the establishment of the Royal Court in Santiago until 1607, which solidified

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5824-411: The attention of D. O. Mills, the banker agreed to finance this expedition. In sum, an amount of $ 26,075 would be provided, to cover the cost of instruments, building construction, salaries, travel expenses, and supplies for this two year expedition. This is equivalent to $ 954,971 in 2023. The plan was for the completed observatory to be a much less costly duplicate of the spectroscopic capabilities of

5936-624: The beginning of Chile’s path to independence . The city, which became the capital of the newly formed nation, faced various challenges, particularly from military actions in the vicinity. Although institutions like the Instituto Nacional and the National Library were established during the Patria Vieja , they were shut down after the patriots’ defeat at the Battle of Rancagua in 1814. The royal government continued until 1817, when

6048-917: The best known are the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Vesuvius Observatory . Mobile volcano observatories exist with the USGS VDAP (Volcano Disaster Assistance Program), to be deployed on demand. Each volcano observatory has a geographic area of responsibility it is assigned to whereby the observatory is tasked with spreading activity forecasts, analyzing potential volcanic activity threats and cooperating with communities in preparation for volcanic eruption . Santiago Santiago ( / ˌ s æ n t i ˈ ɑː ɡ oʊ / , US also / ˌ s ɑː n -/ ; Spanish: [sanˈtjaɣo] ), also known as Santiago de Chile ( Spanish: [san̪ˈtja.ɣo ðe ˈtʃi.le] ),

6160-949: The best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A  — a place in the central part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility. Beginning in 1933, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such an instrument, or collection of instruments, with supporting facilities such as control centres, visitor housing, data reduction centers, and/or maintenance facilities are called radio observatories . Radio observatories are similarly located far from major population centers to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio , TV , radar , and other EMI emitting devices, but unlike optical observatories, radio observatories can be placed in valleys for further EMI shielding. Some of

6272-474: The capital to the Port of Valparaíso was inaugurated. During the "Liberal Republic" and the administration of Mayor Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna , a new phase in the urban development of the capital was initiated. One of the main projects during this period was the remodeling of Cerro Santa Lucía , which had fallen into disrepair despite its central location. In his effort to transform Santiago, Vicuña Mackenna initiated

6384-589: The cathedral's façade, the Palacio de La Moneda , the San Carlos Canal , and the completion of the embankments during the government of Ambrosio O'Higgins . These works were officially opened in 1798. The O'Higgins government also opened the road to Valparaíso in 1791, connecting the capital with the country's main port. On September 18, 1810, the First Government Junta was proclaimed in Santiago, marking

6496-482: The center, lies at 570 m (1,870 ft). Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo , at the eastern edge of the city, has an elevation of 960 m (3,150 ft). The Santiago Basin is part of the Intermediate Depression and is remarkably flat, interrupted only by a few "island hills;" among them are Cerro Renca , Cerro Blanco , and Cerro Santa Lucía . The basin is approximately 80 kilometers (50 miles) in

6608-549: The central streets of Santiago, further diminishing the role of Valparaíso. The enactment of the Autonomous Municipalities Act empowered municipalities to establish various administrative divisions within the Santiago department, with the goal of enhancing local governance. In 1891, the municipalities of Maipú , Ñuñoa , Renca , Lampa , and Colina were created, followed by Providencia and Barrancas in 1897, and Las Condes in 1901. The La Victoria departmento

6720-530: The city and contribute to a smog problem, particularly during winter due to the lack of rain. The outskirts of the city are surrounded by vineyards, and Santiago is within an hour's drive of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Santiago is the political and financial center of Chile and hosts the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations and organizations . The Chilean government's executive and judiciary branches are based in Santiago, while

6832-412: The city created a crisis in the city center. To reinvigorate the area, the government transformed the main shopping streets into pedestrian walkways, as it did in the 1970s, and offered tax benefits for the construction of residential buildings, which attracted young adults. The city faced a series of problems due to disorganized growth. During the winter months, air pollution reached critical levels and

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6944-474: The city's status as the capital. During the early years of the city, the Spanish suffered from severe shortages of food and other supplies. The Picunches had adopted a strategy of halting cultivation and retreating to more remote locations, which isolated the Spanish and forced them to resort to eating whatever they could find. The shortage of clothing meant that some Spanish had to dress with hides from dogs, cats, sea lions , and foxes . Although Santiago

7056-492: The city, while 45,000 people used trams daily. As the new century began, Santiago underwent various changes due to the rapid growth of industry. Valparaíso, which had previously been the economic center of the country, gradually lost its prominence to the capital. By 1895, 75% of the national manufacturing industry was located in Santiago, while only 28% was in Valparaíso. By 1910, major banks and shops had established themselves in

7168-612: The coast. The mountain range immediately bordering the city on the east is known as the Sierra de Ramón , which was formed due to tectonic activity of the San Ramón Fault . This range reaches 3296 meters at Cerro de Ramón . The Sierra de Ramón represents the " Precordillera " of the Andes. 20 km (12 mi) further east is the even larger Cordillera of the Andes , which has mountains and volcanoes that exceed 6,000 m (19,690 ft) and on which some glaciers are present. The tallest

7280-413: The coat was back at its old level after a month. Wilson concluded it should be resilvered every two months for best results. The leaky canvas covering of the dome was replaced with galvanized iron early in 1906. Data collection continued during the next three years, with around 200 nights per year being highly favorable for viewing. Most of the work was performed with the two-prism spectroscope, which had

7392-421: The construction of new avenues, such as the Américo Vespucio Avenue and Panamericana Route 5 , as well as the expansion of 'industrial belts'. The 1962 World Cup provided a new impetus for city improvement efforts, and in 1966, the Santiago Metropolitan Park was established on Cerro San Cristóbal. The Ministry of Housing and Urbanism ( MINVU ) also began to eradicate shantytowns and build new homes. Finally,

7504-471: The construction of the Camino de Cintura , a road surrounding the entire city. The redevelopment of Alameda Avenue also took place during this time, turning it into the city's main road. Also during this era, O'Higgins Park was established with the help of European landscapers in 1873. The public park, known for its large gardens, lakes, and carriage trails, became a landmark in Santiago. Other notable structures were also opened during this period, including

7616-497: The construction of the Ciudad Parque Bicentenario, which marked the bicentenary of the Republic. The trend of constructing tall buildings continued in the eastern sector, which was highlighted by the opening of the Titanium La Portada and Gran Torre Santiago skyscrapers in the Costanera Center complex. On 27 February 2010, a powerful earthquake hit the capital city of Santiago, causing damage to some older buildings and rendering some modern structures uninhabitable. This sparked

7728-423: The distance between stars ) or Stonehenge (which has some alignments on astronomical phenomena). Ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum . Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have

7840-422: The dust and haze of the urban area, and free of the frequent fogs that occurred in the valley. Even better, the temperature range on the mount was found to be lower than below. Unfortunately the weather was unusually cloudy that year, limiting observation tests. Late in May the strike ended in Valparaíso, which allowed the observatory equipment to be shipped and construction begun. Only minor damage had been done to

7952-413: The eastern sector. This development extended to the Barrio Alto , which became an attractive location for the construction of high-rise buildings. Major companies and financial corporations established themselves in the area, giving rise to a thriving modern business center commonly known as Sanhattan . The departure of these companies to Barrio Alto and the construction of shopping centers all around

8064-473: The effects of light pollution . The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a large percentage of clear nights per year, dry air, and are at high elevations. At high elevations, the Earth's atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence and resulting in better astronomical " seeing ". Sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include

8176-463: The electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays , and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based telescopes

8288-510: The end of 1978. Building telecommunications infrastructure was also an important development of this period, as reflected in the construction of the Torre Entel , which, since its construction in 1975, has become one of the symbols of the capital and remained the tallest structure in the country for two decades. After the military coup of 1973 and the establishment of the military regime , significant changes in urban planning did not occur until

8400-579: The foothills of Las Condes and the La Reina sector. The regulation of growth in Santiago only began in the 1960s with the creation of various development plans for Greater Santiago, a concept that reflected the city's new reality as a much larger urban center. In 1958, the Intercommunal Plan of Santiago was released, which proposed a limit of 38,600 urban and semi-urban hectares for a maximum population of 3,260,000 residents. The plan also included plans for

8512-608: The instruments used for the northern survey. The resulting cost was one eighteenth the cost of the Lick observatory main telescope. For the observatory location, Campbell initially considered possible sites in Australia. However, climate records and the reports from other astronomers indicated that Chile would be a better site. He finally settled on placing it in the vicinity of the Chilean capital of Santiago , so that supplies and living quarters would be readily available. The Lick observatory had

8624-567: The latter derived from the Galician evolution of Vulgar Latin Sanctu Iacobu . Allegedly, there was no indigenous name for the area where Santiago is located, but the Mapuche language uses the adapted name Santiaw . Residents of the city and region are referred to as santiaguinos (for males) and santiaguinas (for females). Archaeological evidence suggests that the first human groups arrived in

8736-536: The metropolitan area has evolved over time as the city has expanded, incorporating smaller cities and rural areas. The name Santiago was chosen by the Spanish conqueror Pedro de Valdivia when he founded the city in 1541 as "Santiago del Nuevo Extremo," in reference to his home region of Extremadura and as a tribute to James the Great , the patron saint of Spain . The saint's name appears in various forms in Spanish, such as Diego , Jaime , Jacobo , or Santiago , with

8848-561: The most significant architectural projects of the colonial period, the Calicanto Bridge, connecting the city to La Chimba on the north side of the Mapocho River. He also began constructing embankments to prevent river overflows. Although the bridge was completed, its piers were frequently damaged by the river. In 1780, Governor Agustín de Jáuregui hired the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca , who designed several important buildings, including

8960-527: The need for similar radial velocity measurements of stars in the Southern Hemisphere. This would allow a more complete investigation of the Solar System 's motion with respect to the neighboring stars. The director of the Lick observatory, James Edward Keeler , died on August 12, 1900, and Campbell was named to succeed him as of January 1, 1901. When Campbell brought the need for a southern observatory to

9072-539: The network returned to full normal service. The city lies in the center of the Santiago Basin , a large bowl-shaped valley consisting of broad and fertile lands surrounded by mountains. The city has a varying elevation, gradually increasing from 400 m (1,312 ft) in the western areas to more than 700 m (2,297 ft) in the eastern areas. Santiago's international airport , in the west, lies at an altitude of 460 m (1,509 ft). Plaza Baquedano , near

9184-477: The observatory until 1928, when it was purchased by Chilean lawyer Manuel Foster Recabarren for the Universidad Católica de Chile and transferred to their control. The observatory is located in the Santiago Metropolitan Park and became a national monument in 2010. The main telescope is a cassegrain reflector with a 0.93 m (3.1 ft) aperture and an equatorial mount . This instrument

9296-402: The observatory was damaged in a fire and an assistant lost an eye in an accident. Heilmeier complained about the lack of running water, astronomers, and funding. The University continued to operate it sporadically until 1948, when technical and economic problems caused it to cease operations. Restoration of the observatory began in the 1980s, and, since 1982, the observatory was used once more by

9408-412: The population of Santiago to be 507,296 inhabitants, equivalent to 13.6% of the total population of Chile. This represented a growth of 52.5% from the 1907 census, an annual increase of 3.3%, which was almost three times the national average. This growth was mainly due to an influx of farmers from the southern regions who came to work in the factories and railroads that were being built. However, this growth

9520-426: The spectrogram plates. Curtis assumed command of the expedition on March 1, 1906, whereupon Wright returned to the United States. Curtis' assistant, George F. Paddock, arrived August 2, 1906. The new financing was used to fund improvements to the observatory. The first change was the construction of an additional building to accommodate a machine shop , plus two rooms for the observers. New bearings were provided for

9632-511: The spectrograph was found to be on the same order of accuracy as the instrument at Lick Observatory. 380 successful spectrograms had been collected at the station by June 1, 1904. The funded observation program ended in October 1905. At this point, the spectra of the brighter stars south of declination –25° had been taken, producing a working list of 145 stars of which at least four photographic plates had been taken. The total number of specrograms

9744-418: The start of December, a total of 725 stars, mostly below a declination of –20°, had spectrograms taken, measured, and the data collected. A total of 3,608 spectrographic plates had been made. After D. O. Mills died in 1910, his son, Ogden Mills , agreed to fund the site until 1913. A sum totaling $ 30,000 was provided, covering expenses up through 1914. In addition to normal measurements, Campbell decided to use

9856-409: The station until October, 1919, when Paddock returned for five years. The observatory was renamed Chile Station of Lick Observatory in 1919. The final head of the observatory was Ferdinand J. Neubauer , who assumed control on January 22, 1924. In 1926, Campbell was able to estimate a velocity and apex of solar motion in equatorial coordinates based on the radial velocity study: This is located in

9968-426: The streets. The harsh living conditions resulted in widespread diseases like tuberculosis, and took a toll on the homeless population. At the same time, unemployment rates and living costs skyrocketed, while the salaries of the people in Santiago fell. The situation would change several years later with a new industrial boom fostered by CORFO and the expansion of the state apparatus from the late 1930s. At this time,

10080-467: The telescope in transit. However, the dome had arrived badly rusted and repairs were necessary. The ground for the observatory was broken on May 27. The dome consisted of a steel framework sheathed in wood and covered in heavy painted canvas, which did not prove watertight. The observers were housed down in the city, necessitating a nightly climb to the observatory. The initial testing of the main telescope commenced on September 11, 1903. Some zonal aberration

10192-488: The time. Modernity also spread in the city, with the introduction of the first theaters, the expansion of the telephone network, and the opening of Los Cerrillos Airport in 1928, among other advancements. The perception that the early 20th century was a time of economic prosperity due to technological advancements was in stark contrast to the living conditions of lower social classes. The previous decades of growth resulted in an unprecedented population boom starting in 1929, but

10304-431: The total length of the metropolitan railway to 105 km (65 mi). In the early 1990s, the bus system also underwent a major reform. In 2007, the master plan known as Transantiago was established, although it has faced various challenges since its implementation. Entering the 21st century, rapid development continued in Santiago. The Civic District was revitalized with the creation of the Plaza de la Ciudadanía and

10416-417: The urban area covered 6,500 hectares, which increased to 20,900 in 1960 and to 38,296 in 1980. Although growth was mainly concentrated in communities such as Barrancas to the west, Conchalí to the north, and La Cisterna and La Granja to the south, the center of the city lost population, leaving more space for commercial, banking, and government development. The upper class, on the other hand, began to settle in

10528-765: The world's major radio observatories include the Very Large Array in New Mexico , United States, Jodrell Bank in the UK , Arecibo in Puerto Rico , Parkes in New South Wales , Australia, and Chajnantor in Chile . A related discipline is Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI). Since the mid-20th century, a number of astronomical observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes , above 4,000–5,000 m (13,000–16,000 ft). The largest and most notable of these

10640-435: Was 800, with 676 of stars on the list and 92 that were found to be unmeasureable. The astronomers discovered 22 stars with variable radial velocities. Mills agreed to continue funding the station for an additional five years. To head up this new observation period, acting astronomer Heber D. Curtis set sail from San Francisco on December 30, 1905. The same month, Palmer returned to Lick observatory where he began measurements of

10752-476: Was able to be serviced by the Space Shuttles while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all. Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earth's atmosphere. They also have an advantage over space telescopes: The instruments can be deployed, repaired and updated much more quickly and inexpensively. The Kuiper Airborne Observatory and

10864-513: Was accepted as Supreme Director and, like his father, undertook several important projects for the city. During the Patria Nueva era, previously closed institutions were reopened. The General Cemetery was inaugurated, work on the San Carlos Canal was completed, and the drying riverbed in the south arm of the Mapocho River, known as La Cañada, which had been used as a landfill for some time,

10976-562: Was also built in the north of the city: the Mapocho Station . The Parque Forestal was established on the southern side of the Mapocho river, and new buildings such as the Museum of Fine Arts , the Barros Arana public boarding school , and the National Library were opened. In addition, a sewer system was installed, serving approximately 85% of the city's population. The 1920 census estimated

11088-402: Was also divided, leading to the creation of Lo Cañas in 1891, which was then further split into La Granja and Puente Alto in 1892, followed by La Florida in 1899, and La Cisterna in 1925. The San Cristobal Hill underwent a prolonged process of development during this period. In 1903, an astronomical observatory was established on the hill, and the following year, construction began on

11200-449: Was concentrated in the suburbs and not in the city center. During this time, the downtown district consolidated as a commercial, financial, and administrative center, with the establishment of various shops and businesses around Ahumada Street and a Civic District in the vicinity of the Palace of La Moneda. The latter project involved the construction of modernist buildings for the offices of

11312-573: Was constructed by the Fulton Engine Works in Los Angeles , and it arrived at the observatory in December 1901. A rotating steel dome for the observatory was constructed by Warner and Swasey Company , and the spectroscope and other optics by Brashear. When the mirror arrived in 1902, it was found to be again shaped to the wrong figure and had to be returned for correction. With the schedule delayed, it

11424-741: Was declared a national monument in 2010. The site is now used primarily for education purposes and is open for guided tours of the general public. Astronomical observatory The term observatoire has been used in French since at least 1976 to denote any institution that compiles and presents data on a particular subject (such as public health observatory ) or for a particular geographic area ( European Audiovisual Observatory ). Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories: space-based , airborne , ground-based, and underground-based. Historically, ground-based observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant (for measuring

11536-470: Was divided into eight blocks from north to south and ten blocks from east to west, between the Mapocho River and the Cañada with each quarter-block, or solar , granted to settlers. The colonial architecture following the grid plan consisted of one or two-story houses, adobe walls, tile roofs, and rooms around interior corridors and patios . Valdivia left for the south with his troops months later, initiating

11648-520: Was due to suburban expansion to the south and west of the capital, as well as the growth of the bustling district of La Chimba, which resulted from the division of old properties in the area. This new peripheral development marked the end of the previous checkerboard structure that had dominated the city center. During the Republican era, several institutions were founded, including the University of Chile ,

11760-399: Was facing the threat of permanent destruction early on, due to attacks from indigenous peoples, earthquakes, and floods, the city began to grow rapidly. Out of the 126 blocks designed by Pedro de Gamboa in 1558, 40 were occupied. In 1580, the first major buildings in the city started to be erected, marked by the placement of the foundation stone of the first Cathedral in 1561 and the building of

11872-421: Was found to be satisfactory and operations began late in 1903. A total of 800 spectrograms had been successfully collected by October 1905. Heber D. Curtis took over operations in March 1906, and new financing from Mills allowed improvements to the observatory. Using the data collected from this observatory, Campbell completed his study on the motion of the Sun in 1926. With added funding, operations continued at

11984-499: Was found, which decreased later in the night as the instrument cooled. However, this defect was not found to be significant for spectroscopic work of this type. The telescope was found to change focus as it cooled. The nature of the silvered mirror precluded its use on clear damp nights, which occurred frequently during the rainy season. The silver coating showed a rapid decline in reflectivity over time due to tarnish , which required longer exposure times to compensate. The operation of

12096-544: Was headed up by Campbell's associate, William H. Wright, with Harold K. Palmer as his assistant. They set sail from San Francisco on February 28, 1903 in the Pacific Mail steamship Peru . After transferring to the steamship Columbia at Panama , they arrived at Valparaíso on April 18. After a month-long delay due to a riotous strike in the port, the gear was unloaded and then transported 193 kilometres (120 miles) to Santiago by rail. There they were greeted by members of

12208-428: Was largely driven by the construction of housing projects for middle-class families. Meanwhile, high-income families relocated to the foothills, now commonly referred to as Barrio Alto , boosting the population of Las Condes and giving rise to young communes, including Lo Barnechea and Vitacura , both established in 1981 and 1991, respectively. The area around Providencia Avenue became an important commercial hub in

12320-487: Was met with tragedy as the Great Depression hit. The collapse of the nitrate industry in the north left 60,000 people unemployed, compounded by a decline in agricultural exports, resulting in an estimated 300,000 unemployed people nationwide. Desperate for survival, many migrants flocked to Santiago and its thriving industry. However, they often found themselves struggling to find housing, with many being forced to live on

12432-506: Was resolved that the instruments would be shipped to their final destination without testing the completed instrument. The finished mirrors arrived in February 1903, and, as a result, the expedition reached Chile in April at the start of the southern rainy season. W. W. Campbell had intended to travel with the expedition, but he was severely injured while testing the equipment. Instead, the expedition

12544-458: Was transformed into an avenue now known as the Alameda de las Delicias . Two earthquakes struck the city in the 19th century: one on November 19, 1822, and another on February 20, 1835. Despite these disasters, the city continued to grow rapidly. In 1820, the population was recorded as 46,000, but by 1854, it had risen to 69,018. By 1865, the census reported 115,337 residents. This significant increase

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