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90-483: Mangshi ( Chinese : 芒市 ; Wade–Giles : Mangshih ; Tai Nüa : ᥝᥥᥒᥰ ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ᥑᥩᥢᥴ ; Jingpho : Mangshi Myu ), former name Luxi ( 潞西 ), is a county-level city and the seat of Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture , western Yunnan province, China. Mangshi has an area of 2,900.91 km (1,120.05 sq mi), with an urban area of 18.66 km (7.20 sq mi). Han Chinese , Dai people (Tai Nuea branch) and Jingpo people (Zaiwa branch) are

180-464: A nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong , diphthong , or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant , or consonant + glide ; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone . There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where

270-457: A subject–verb–object word order , and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words , another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction , pronoun dropping , and

360-505: A Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian , a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and

450-595: A Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese ; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called 台語 ; 'Taiwanese' ), Hakka , or an Austronesian language . A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong , Cantonese

540-462: A central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity. The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is 方言 ; fāngyán ; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 地点方言 ; 地點方言 ; dìdiǎn fāngyán ; 'local speech'. Because of

630-597: A compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua , based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore , and one of

720-700: A corresponding increase in the number of homophones . As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary lists six words that are commonly pronounced as shí in Standard Chinese: In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi . As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only

810-497: A district named Mangzheban Administrative District ( 芒遮板行政區 ) was established. At the same time, Mengmao Anfusi was separated from the district, thus forming the boundaries of modern Mangshi. As a transition before formally establishing a county, Yunnan government set a Shezhiju ( 設治局 , similar to a governing council) in Mangshi area named Mangzheban Shezhiju ( 芒遮板設治局 ) replacing Mangzheban District in 1929. The Administrative Bureau

900-564: A millennium. The Four Commanderies of Han were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries. Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as

990-472: A part of the Burma Road in 1937. In modern China National Highways network , this road is part of G320 Highway . Longling-Ruili Expressway opened on 31 December 2015, and is the first expressway of Mangshi. It forms part of G56 Hangzhou–Ruili Expressway and AH14 . A provincial highway, Mangshi-Lianghe Expressway is currently under construction. Another provincial expressway, Ruili-Menglian Expressway ,

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1080-538: A secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty . As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate

1170-503: A similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin

1260-678: A single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family . Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese , of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min ), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese ), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese ). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with

1350-610: A unified standard. The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to c.  1250 BCE , during the Late Shang . The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts dating to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching . Scholars have attempted to reconstruct

1440-563: A variety of Yue from a small coastal area around Taishan, Guangdong . In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, Wuzhou and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from Guangzhou respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than

1530-462: Is " 芒市 " (Mangshi), the official English translation in the Yearbook of Dehong is "Mangshi City". Historically, Mangshi was divided among three tusi territories. Mangshi Lu ( 茫施路 ), established by Yuan dynasty in 1276, was the first time the region was integrated into the administrative system of a Chinese dynasty. Mangshi Lu was part of Jinchi Xuanfusi ( 金齿等处宣抚司 ), Yunnan Province. In 1277,

1620-596: Is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the Pearl River , whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of Fujian , the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: Proportions of first-language speakers The classification of Li Rong , which

1710-447: Is a Tertiary B-level hospital established in 1954 in southeast of Mangshi. It has 1,200 beds and the service area covered up Dehong, Longling , Tengchong and part of Myanmar . Dehong Teachers' College ( 德宏师范高等专科学校 ) is the main higher education college of Dehong, established in 2006. It is a technical college but under the working for upgrade to an undergraduate education university. Many Burmese students are studying abroad in

1800-515: Is a Chinese State Council-approved Industrial Park based in Ruili, founded in 1992, and was established to promote trade between China and Myanmar. The area's import and export trade include the processing industry, local agriculture, and biological resources, which are very promising. Sino-Myanmar business is growing fast. Myanmar is now one of Yunnan's biggest foreign trade partners. In 1999, Sino-Myanmar trade accounted for 77.4% of Yunnan's foreign trade. In

1890-689: Is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China , as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora . Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language . Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of

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1980-421: Is a quasi-county level administrative division. Mengga is the seat of the bureau. It changed the name to Luxi Shezhiju ( 潞西設治局 ) in 1934. Imperial Japanese Army occupied Luxi at 4   May 1942 and retreated at 11 December 1944 when Counterattack of Western Yunnan started. In 1949, Luxi Administrative Bureau finally became Luxi County ( 潞西县 ), with the seat of county government at the town of Mangshi, and

2070-462: Is an important location for trade with Myanmar, in both legal and illegal goods and services. Prostitution and drug trade in the city are not uncommon. Ruili has a warm humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cwa ), and is generally humid. Summer is long and there is virtually no "winter" as such. Instead, there is a dry season (December through April) and wet season (May through October). A drier heat prevails from February till early May before

2160-485: Is called either 华语 ; 華語 ; Huáyǔ or 汉语 ; 漢語 ; Hànyǔ ). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers. For example,

2250-513: Is just north of the City and covers 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) of well-preserved native vegetation. Dehong is one of the three primary coffee cultivating regions in Yunnan . The main coffee planter and processor is Hogood Coffee , which operates a contracting scheme with local farmers. Hogood contracts farmland from smallholders , on which it plants seedlings, and then re-contracts with farmers to purchase

2340-522: Is named after the Shweli River . 瑞 ruì means "auspicious", and 丽 lì means "beautiful". An older name of Ruili is Mengmao ( 勐卯 ), derived from the Tai Nuea language " Mong Mao " ( ᥝᥥᥒᥰ ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ), meaning "foggy place". Ruili is on the border with Myanmar . 64% of the population of Ruili are members of five highland and lowland ethnic minorities, including Dai , Jingpo , Deang , Lisu , and Achang . It

2430-595: Is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a morpheme , the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free , such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of

2520-445: Is only about an eighth as many as English. All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate

2610-585: Is planned. Although Mangshi has a 68.23 km-long borderline with Myanmar, it has no national port of entry . There are three border crossing without customs control into Myanmar serving the locals. They are Manghai ( 芒海 ), Zhongshan ( 中山 ) and Bangda ( 邦达 ). Manghai links Mong Ko in Myanmar, also known as Monekoe. Dali–Ruili railway is under construction, with two stations in Mangshi: Mangshi and Mangshi West . Dehong Mangshi International Airport

2700-668: Is specifically meant. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, 石 ; shí alone, and not 石头 ; 石頭 ; shítou , appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 石膏 ; shígāo ; 'plaster', 石灰 ; shíhuī ; 'lime', 石窟 ; shíkū ; 'grotto', 石英 ; 'quartz', and 石油 ; shíyóu ; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes ( 字 ; zì ) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 词 ; 詞 ; cí , which more closely resembles

2790-562: Is the "mother river" of Mangshi, and has a drainage basin of 1,881 km (726 sq mi), about 61.3% of area of Mangshi. Longchuan River ( 龙川江 ) is the border river between Mangshi and Lianghe County and Longchuan County on the north and west. Salween River on the southeast tip of Mangshi marks the international border between Mangshi and Myanmar 's Shan State . Mangshi currently comprises 12 administrative township-level subdivisions including one subdistrict , five towns and six townships . As of 2016, Mangshi nominal GDP

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2880-484: Is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary,

2970-475: Is the only airport in Dehong Prefecture. It saw 1,652,533 passengers and 13,982 flights in 2017. Dehong Sports Center is located on the west of Mangshi, with a 21,000-capacity stadium, a 3,200-capacity basketball gym, a 2,150-capacity aquatics center, a 6-courts tennis gym and other outdoor sports fields. The sports center was built in 2008, and has a building area of 36,813.49m. Dehong People's Hospital

3060-716: Is the only newspaper that uses five languages in China. Pauk-Phaw , the first Burmese newspaper of China, was founded in Mangshi in 2015 and is published by Dehong Unity Newspaper office. It serves the 50,000 Burmese who live in China. 3.3 million tourists visited Mangshi in 2015, and generated a tourism income of CN¥ 5.09 billion for the city. Puti Temple , Wuyun Temple and Foguang Temple are well known Buddhist temples in Mangshi. Tiecheng Pagoda , Fengping Pagoda and Menghuan Pagoda are well known Buddhist pagodas . Tiecheng Pagoda, also known as "Shubao Pagoda" ( Chinese : 树 包 塔 ; lit. 'pagoda wrapped by tree'),

3150-496: Is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau . The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because

3240-497: Is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence. Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for

3330-540: Is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups: Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan , Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan , and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong . Standard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called 普通话 ; pǔtōnghuà ) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it

3420-428: Is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia : as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while

3510-735: The Qieyun rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese , borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system

3600-464: The Chinese Communist Party . The three tusi were killed during the land reform movement in 1955. Luxi County became Luxi City ( county-level city ) in 1996, and changed the name to Mangshi City in 2010. Mangshi has an area of 2,900.91 km (1,120.05 sq mi). There are two main plains in Mangshi named Mangshi Ba ( 芒市坝 ) and Zhefang Ba ( 遮放坝 ). The city of Mangshi is situated at

3690-641: The General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party inspected Dehong prefecture in 1985, Mangshi abolished all border checkpoints, and made the whole territory a border trade zone. The border trade and other tertiary sectors was prosperous in the 1990s. The proportion of three industrial sectors in 1978 was 65.6 : 16.3 : 18.1, and in 2016, 23.2 : 20.5 : 56.3. Asian rice , sugarcane , tea , coffee , macadamia nut and fruits ( banana , pineapple , mango , jackfruit etc.) are

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3780-525: The Korean , Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in

3870-680: The May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919. After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin ) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. The 1324 Zhongyuan Yinyun was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language. Together with

3960-579: The National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it 普通话 ; 普通話 ; pǔtōnghuà ; 'common speech'. The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. In Hong Kong and Macau , Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and

4050-473: The oracle bone inscriptions created during the Shang dynasty c.  1250 BCE . The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period , Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun , a rime dictionary , recorded

4140-591: The phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at

4230-430: The 10th largest civilian-run enterprise of Yunnan. In 2016, Mangshi had a total population of 415,700 over the whole county-level city, of which 171.2 thousand resided in the city core, the subdistrict of Menghuan . According to the 2010 census , Mangshi has 204,083 Han citizens, 52.34% of total population. Other main ethnicities are Dai and Jingpo , which has a population with 132,421 and 29,208. Mangshi has

4320-624: The 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian , records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai , a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. The 2016 edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian , an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. Ruili The city

4410-614: The 3rd tusi, Mengban Tuqianzong ( 勐板土千总 ) in modern Mangshi Area. In Republic of China period , the Yunnan government appointed two "suppression commissars" ( 彈壓委員 ) to Mangban ( 芒板 ) and Zhemao ( 遮卯 ) within the Mangshi area in 1913. Mangban suppression commissar administered Mangshi Anfusi and Mengban Tuqianzong territories, and Zhemao suppression commissar administered Zhefang Xuanfusi and Mengmao Anfusi ( 勐卯安撫司 , in Ruili ) territories. The two suppression commissars were replaced by an administrative commissar ( 行政委員 ) in 1915, and

4500-555: The Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet . English words of Chinese origin include tea from Hokkien 茶 ( tê ), dim sum from Cantonese 點心 ( dim2 sam1 ), and kumquat from Cantonese 金橘 ( gam1 gwat1 ). The sinologist Jerry Norman has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum , in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though

4590-796: The area was affected by the first Mongol invasion of Burma . Ming dynasty repealed Mangshi Lu and set Mangshi Fu ( 茫施府 ) in 1382. Because Mangshi chief Dao Fangge ( 刀放革 ) helped the Ming dynasty army in the Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns , Ming dynasty made him the Mangshi Tusi (native chieftain), and founded the agency Mangshi Yuyi Zhangguansi ( 芒市御夷长官司 ) in 1443. In 1584, Ming dynasty created another tusi, Zhefang Fuxuanfusi ( 遮放副宣抚司 ) in Zhefang area, formerly part of Longchuan Xuanfusi ( 陇川宣抚司 ). In 1640, Mangshi Yuyi Zhangguansi upgraded to Mangshi Anfusi ( 芒市安抚司 ). In 1899, Qing dynasty set

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4680-490: The center for religion activities and education, and also the entertainment venues for villagers. Expenditure of the temple and the monk life costs are paid by the villagers. An average Dai farmer spends one-fifth of his annual income for religion-related activities in 1988. In Jingpo folk religion, various gods as well as ancestral spirits are worshipped. Water-Sprinkling Festival (in Thailand called " Songkran ") and Manau are

4770-452: The city name is Muang Khon ( ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ᥑᥩᥢᥴ ), written in Chinese is " 勐 焕 ", meaning "city of dawn". In 2008, 4,751 people participated in a public opinion survey in favour of restoring the historical name (Mangshi), with 96.96% supporting a name change to Mangshi. In 2010, the name was formally changed. "Mangshi" is the proper name of the city, however, the character " 市 " ( shì ) itself means "city". The full name in Chinese language

4860-536: The city, Jingpo and Deang live mostly in the outskirts in the surrounding hills. Wanding Border Economic Cooperation Zone (WTBECZ) is a Chinese State Council-approved Industrial Park based in Wanding Town of Ruili City, founded in 1992, and was established to promote Sino–Burmese trade. The zone spans 6 km (2.3 sq mi) and is focused on developing trading, processing, agriculture resources, and tourism. Ruili Border Economic Cooperation Zone (RLBECZ)

4950-449: The coffee beans at harvest. Because of its position near the border with Myanmar, Ruili is an important hub of cross-border trade, including the new oil and gas pipeline coming up from Kyaukphyu , which is being expanded as part of the Belt and Road Initiative 's Maritime Silk Road. Ruili City has 1 subdistrict, 3 towns and 2 townships. Han Chinese and Dai mostly live in the valley. In

5040-481: The college. Dehong's media is multilingual, reflecting its diverse ethnic makeup. Dehong TV Station was established in 1991, with programs in Chinese , Tai Nuea , Jingpho and Zaiwa . Dehong TV Station is the only TV station that uses four languages in China. Dehong Unity News ( 德宏团结报 ) is the official newspaper of Dehong Prefecture Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. The newspaper using five languages: Chinese , Tai Nuea , Jingpho , Zaiwa and Lisu . It

5130-399: The different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which

5220-484: The difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include topolect , lect , vernacular , regional , and variety . Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system, and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules. The structure of each syllable consists of

5310-528: The east of Mangshi Ba. Mountains are the primary landforms of Mangshi, making up approximately 84.48% of the territory. Mount Qingkou ( 箐口山 ) is the city's highest point, with an altitude of 2,889.1 meters. Manxin River's ( 曼辛河 ) estuary (at Salween River ) is the lowest point, with an altitude of 528 metres in Zhongshan Township . The mountains are branches of western Gaoligong Mountains . Mangshi River

5400-566: The end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection , and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles . Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui , Tang , and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by

5490-460: The first county magistrate was the acting Tusi Fang Kesheng ( 方克胜 ). The Tusi system and the central bureaucracy still coexisted. Fang Kesheng refused to join People's Republic of China , preferring to remain neutral. Eventually the People's Liberation Army advanced into Luxi in April 1950, and Fang Kesheng fled to Taiwan . His brother Fang Keguang succeeded be the acting tusi, and cooperated with

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5580-413: The first one, 十 , normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable

5670-491: The form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections —it possesses no tenses , no voices , no grammatical number , and only a few articles . They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood . In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 了 ; le ; ' PFV ', 还 ; 還 ; hái ; 'still', and 已经 ; 已經 ; yǐjīng ; 'already'. Chinese has

5760-599: The government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas . Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family , together with Burmese , Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif . Although

5850-462: The grandest festivals of the Dai and Jingpo. They are both statutory holidays in Dehong Prefecture. The 15,000-capacity Dehong Stadium , a football stadium, is also used for cultural events. Tusi Fang Keming ( 方克明 ) of Mangshi and Duo Jianxun ( 多建勋 ) of Zhefang built a road linking Mangshi and Wanding in 1926. An Indian engineer was invited to design the route. The road was completed in 1931, and became

5940-581: The language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations . Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into

6030-598: The largest number of Palaung people in any county-level subdivision of China, with a population of 9,986, which mainly live in Santaishan Palaung Ethnic Township . Historically, Dai people lived in the plains. Jingpo people immigrated to the mountains from the Tibetan Plateau in the 16th century. Han Chinese became the majority because of the Ming conquest of Yunnan and several Sino-Burmese wars , and

6120-516: The late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji , and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called hanja is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses

6210-415: The main agricultural products of Mangshi, especially coffee. Mangshi has 19,056 ha. of paddy field , 9,165 ha. of sugarcane field, 7,504 ha. of macadamia forest, 5,870 ha. of coffee field and 5,469 ha. of fruit field in 2018. Asian Coffee Association was established at Mangshi in 2017. 13 countries are members of the association. Hogood Coffee is the largest domestic instant coffee producer in China, and

6300-535: The major ethnic groups. Luxi County was founded in 1949, and became a county-level city in 1996. The name "Mangshi" first appeared in 1443, when the Tai Nuea tusi Mangshi Yuyi Zhangguansi ( 芒市御夷长官司 ) was established. In the history, an ethnicity named Mangshi ( 茫 施 ) lived in this area. The name of " 芒 市 " evolved from " 茫施 " (the pinyin are same). Luxi ( 潞 西 ) is the former name of Mangshi, meaning "west of Lu [Salween] River". In Tai Nuea language ,

6390-455: The more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic words , especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonetic erosion : sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including

6480-425: The mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language. There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with

6570-583: The nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/ , /n/ , /ŋ/ , the retroflex approximant /ɻ/ , and voiceless stops /p/ , /t/ , /k/ , or /ʔ/ . Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/ , /ŋ/ , and /ɻ/ . The number of sounds in

6660-576: The onset of the monsoon from the Indian Ocean. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from 14.0 °C (57.2 °F) in January to 25.0 °C (77.0 °F) in June, while the annual mean is 21.0 °C (69.8 °F). Rainfall totals about 1,385 mm (55 in) annually, with nearly 70% of it occurring from June to September. Bordered by monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest, Ruili Botanical Garden

6750-538: The other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin , Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin , Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan . All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic . The earliest attested written Chinese consists of

6840-404: The rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain . Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke Taishanese ,

6930-552: The related subject dropping . Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for

7020-509: The relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic . Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without

7110-505: The six official languages of the United Nations . Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters , largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by

7200-511: The slightly later Menggu Ziyun , this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties , known as 官话 ; 官話 ; Guānhuà ; 'language of officials'. For most of this period, this language

7290-424: The subsequent stationing of Chinese army in the area. Dai people in Mangshi speak Tai Nuea language , while Jingpo people speak Zaiwa and Jingpho . Zaiwa is the most populous branch of Jingpo in Mangshi. Almost all the Dai and Palaung people follows Theravada Buddhism . Many villages have their own Buddhist temple, called " Zhuangfang " ( 奘 房 ) or "Miansi" ( 缅 寺 ; 'Burmese temple'). They are

7380-609: The tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic compounds . In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 窟窿 ; kūlong from 孔 ; kǒng ; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to

7470-547: The traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include 汉堡包 ; 漢堡包 ; hànbǎobāo ; 'hamburger', 守门员 ; 守門員 ; shǒuményuán ; 'goalkeeper', and 电子邮件 ; 電子郵件 ; diànzǐyóujiàn ; 'e-mail'. All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages : they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in

7560-512: The use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable ma . The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be " checked tones " and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: Chinese

7650-452: The words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines. Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters , but later replaced with the hangul alphabet for Korean and supplemented with kana syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex chữ Nôm script. However, these were limited to popular literature until

7740-508: The written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese . Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period . Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with

7830-497: Was CN¥ 9.628 billion, about 0.65% of the province's GDP, ranking 44th among county-level administrative units in Yunnan; its nominal GDP per capita was CN¥ 23,307, 66th in the province, lower than Yunnan average (CN¥ 30,949). In 1958, Yunnan government regulated trade in border areas, and the town of Mangshi was excluded from the zone of border trade. In 1980, province government opened Manghai ( 芒海 ), Mangbing ( 芒丙 ) and Xiaogai ( 小街 ) as border trade markets. After Hu Yaobang ,

7920-453: Was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court. In the 1930s, a standard national language ( 国语 ; 國語 ; Guóyǔ ), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation,

8010-646: Was built in Qianlong era , Qing dynasty . A seed fell in the crack of the pagoda about 200 years ago, and now, the pagoda is wrapped by the bodhi tree . Mengbanaxi Exotics Garden , a garden for valuable ancient trees and tree fossils, is the only AAAA state-level tourist destination of Mangshi. Mangshi currently maintains friendship agreements with the following foreign Chinese language Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 汉语 ; traditional Chinese : 漢語 ; pinyin : Hànyǔ ; lit. ' Han language' or 中文 ; Zhōngwén ; 'Chinese writing')

8100-481: Was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half

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