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49-673: The Mandakini River is a tributary of the Alaknanda River in the Indian state of Uttarakhand . The river runs for approximately 81 kilometres (50 mi) between the Rudraprayag and Sonprayag areas and emerges from the Chorabari Glacier. The Mandakini merges with river Songanga at Sonprayag and flows past the Hindu temple Madhyamaheshwar at Ukhimath. At the end of its course it drains into

98-440: A cataract into another becomes the upper fork, and the one it descends into, the lower ; or by relative volume: the smaller stream designated the little fork, the larger either retaining its name unmodified, or receives the designation big . Tributaries are sometimes listed starting with those nearest to the source of the river and ending with those nearest to the mouth of the river . The Strahler stream order examines

147-464: A lake . A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean . Tributaries, and the main stem river into which they flow, drain the surrounding drainage basin of its surface water and groundwater , leading the water out into an ocean. The Irtysh is a chief tributary of the Ob river and is also the longest tributary river in the world with a length of 4,248 km (2,640 mi). The Madeira River

196-456: A tree data structure . River source The United States Geological Survey (USGS) states that a river's "length may be considered to be the distance from the mouth to the most distant headwater source (irrespective of stream name), or from the mouth to the headwaters of the stream commonly known as the source stream". As an example of the second definition above, the USGS at times considers

245-406: A West Fork as well (now filled in). Forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the handedness is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream. For instance, Steer Creek has a left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek. These naming conventions are reflective of the circumstances of a particular river's identification and charting: people living along the banks of

294-414: A forking of the stream to the right and to the left, which then appear on their charts as such; or the streams are seen to diverge by the cardinal direction (north, south, east, or west) in which they proceed upstream, sometimes a third stream entering between two others is designated the middle fork; or the streams are distinguished by the relative height of one to the other, as one stream descending over

343-547: A holy and perennial reach of the river near the town. This water is used for drinking and domestic use (i.e. washing clothes and bathing). Since the river often overflows, new layers of silt are annually deposited on its banks, creating very fertile soil. The surrounding villages of Chitrakoot and Rambara rely on the Mandakini for the cultivation of crops used in trade and consumption. Many of these harvested plants are also used as natural medicines and aphrodisiacs , making Chitrakoot

392-637: A hub for crop trade in the Mandakini area. The river is also known as Payasuni in the Chitrakoot region. On June 16–17, 2013, unprecedented rainfall and damage to dammed areas of the Chorabari glacier caused the Mandakini and its tributaries in the Garwhal Himalaya to flood and subsequently devastate surrounding villages. The onslaught of water then caused large-scale landslides in the area. 137 separate incidents of 'flash-flood induced debris' were charted within

441-515: A loss in land for usage in husbandry , agriculture , and tourism. The river ecology is also significantly affected by forest fire activity. The Mandakini has become a prime location for investigating the impact of waste dumping and tourism on the quality of water. Due to its cultural and religious significance, the Mandakini and neighbouring villages attract thousands of tourists and pilgrims each year. Increased traffic of people, mules and cars has led to an exponential degradation of roads along

490-439: A river, with a name known to them, may then float down the river in exploration, and each tributary joining it as they pass by appears as a new river, to be given its own name, perhaps one already known to the people who live upon its banks. Conversely, explorers approaching a new land from the sea encounter its rivers at their mouths, where they name them on their charts, then, following a river upstream, encounter each tributary as

539-438: Is marshland . The furthest stream is also often called the head stream. Headwaters are often small streams with cool waters because of shade and recently melted ice or snow. They may also be glacial headwaters, waters formed by the melting of glacial ice . Headwater areas are the upstream areas of a watershed , as opposed to the outflow or discharge of a watershed. The river source is often but not always on or quite near

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588-415: Is "in a location that is the farthest, along water miles, from where that river ends." Under this definition, neither a lake (excepting lakes with no inflows) nor a confluence of tributaries can be a true river source, though both often provide the starting point for the portion of a river carrying a single name. For example, National Geographic and virtually every other geographic authority and atlas define

637-515: Is also therefore one of the biggest triggering agents to the many landslides in the region. Constant flooding, particularly following the flash floods of 2013, has seen the decline in forest density along the Mandakini. Data indicate that the area of forest pastures diminished from 1,240.98 to 1,207.80 ha (3,066.5 to 2,984.5 acres) between 2012 and 2013. Hence, soil fertility and diversity in flora and fauna have been in steady decline since 2013. The fragmentation of forest area has also resulted in

686-419: Is also thrown into the river. The towns of Chitrakoot, Rambara and Kedarnath have also been known to cover river banks in concrete for the construction of fisheries and docks . This has disturbed the natural flow of the river and caused further soil erosion. Tributary A tributary , or an affluent , is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream ( main stem or "parent" ), river, or

735-458: Is relatively high, especially in the monsoon season (usually exceeding 70%). The region houses very steep valleys and large slopes, which commonly result in great sediment movement and landslides. With a total length of approximately 80 km (50 mi) between regions Kedarnath and Rudraprayag, the Mandakini stretches past many significant locations of Uttarakhand. It also acts as a means of direction for passage through that particular area of

784-533: Is the largest tributary river by volume in the world with an average discharge of 31,200 m /s (1.1 million cu ft/s). A confluence , where two or more bodies of water meet, usually refers to the joining of tributaries. The opposite to a tributary is a distributary , a river or stream that branches off from and flows away from the main stream. Distributaries are most often found in river deltas . Right tributary , or right-bank tributary , and left tributary , or left-bank tributary , describe

833-457: Is theorised that increased construction of hydropower projects, exponential growth in tourism and a steady increase in emission of greenhouse gases all contributed to the disaster. Thus, members of the Kedarnath natural council have made efforts to recuperate areas of the land. Some methods include conservation plans, wildlife sanctuaries and the strategic placement of concrete blocks to restore

882-481: The Garwhal Himalayas . Due to great variety in weather and geographical conditions, such as the melting and reforming of the surrounding glaciers, discharge of the Mandakini fluctuates greatly throughout the year. For these reasons, yearly discharge for the Mandakini has been split into two categories: average monsoonal discharge and average daily discharge. This also charts the temperature and sediment levels of

931-479: The Jagdamba temple and Shiva temple, also contribute to its holy significance. Over 10,000 pilgrims travel the main 16 km (9.9 mi) Kedarnath trek along the Mandakini every year to reach the Kedarnath temple. The trek can be completed on foot or on a mule's back for a small fee. Longer treks along the basin are also offered for locals and experienced tourists. These extend to the shrine of Tungnath and retrace

980-533: The Missouri River as a tributary of the Mississippi River . But it also follows the first definition above (along with virtually all other geographic authorities and publications) in using the combined Missouri—lower Mississippi length figure in lists of lengths of rivers around the world. Most rivers have numerous tributaries and change names often; it is customary to regard the longest tributary or stem as

1029-674: The 2013 Kedarnath flash floods. In Hinduism, Mandākinī (मन्दाकिनी) signifies 'the river of the air or heaven'. As coined within the Vāyu Purāṇa , this name correlates to the Mandakini's high elevation and its course through significant spiritual locations. Within Shilpa shastra (ancient Hindu texts referring to the arts and their standards within Indian culture), Mandākinī translates to 'slow' and refers to an illustration of Mandākinī-śruti, an ancient example of Indian religious iconography. Her shapely beauty and flowing scarf are often seen in relation to

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1078-684: The Alaknanda, which flows into the Ganges . The Mandakini is considered by Hindus a sacred river within Uttarakhand as it runs past the Kedarnath and Madhyamaheshwar temples. For this reason, the Mandakini has been the site of pilgrimages and religious tourism, with treks passing significant sites of spirituality such as Tungnath and Deoria Tal . The Mandakini area also attracts millions of tourists annually for whitewater rafting, hiking, and religious tours around

1127-495: The Chorabari glacier (a loss of 1% of its frontal area and approximately 344 m [1,129 ft] of its length). As a result, the Mandakini river has seen steadily increasing water levels and potential for flash flooding. This also diminishes fresh water supplies for surrounding towns. The Mandakini's rich pious significance dates back to its mention in the Srimad Bhagavad . Its plethora of ancient Hindu temples, including

1176-458: The Kedarnath shrine and within Rambara, a small village downstream. While numerous homes and farms were destroyed in the floods, the majority of shrines and the Kedarnath temple were left intact. Locals were seen trekking to the temple and praying only days after the disaster. Pilgrims and locals reported "black clouds" and "black water" taking over the land and the skies on the day of the flooding. It

1225-405: The Kedarnath valley. Downstream settlements such as Kedarnath (3,546 m [11,634 ft] a.s.l. ), Rambara (2,740 m [8,990 ft] a.s.l.) and Gaurikund (1,990 m [6,530 ft] a.s.l.) were the most heavily impacted due to an accumulated debris buildup from damaged villages upstream, creating a 'snowball effect' of devastation. During the floods, the main channel of

1274-462: The Mandakini basin. It is also one of the many glaciers nestled in the Himalayan region, which many residents rely on for their water needs. The glacier is between the Kedarnath summit to the north and the town of Kedarnath to the south. In recent years (from data received between 1962 and 2014), however, exposure to higher temperatures and increased human intervention has seen a reduction in landmass of

1323-497: The Mandakini is called mandāka , which roughly translates to 'the Ganges of Heaven'. The Mandakini basin ranges in elevation from 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) above sea level to approximately 6,090 metres (19,980 ft) at the head of the Chorabari Glacier. Climates are generally cooler than the Indian mainland with maximum temperatures ranging from 30–60 °C (86–140 °F) to a minimum of 0–8 °C (32–46 °F). Humidity

1372-425: The area. As a result, soil erosion has increased, and soil productivity has decreased. This has caused more frequent large-scale landslides and the inability for new crops to grow and be harvested. Increased levels of rainfall have also been attributed to climate change, with researchers predicting larger numbers of soil loss occurring over coming years. Studies show that moraine-dammed lakes , which are attributed to

1421-407: The arrangement of tributaries in a hierarchy of first, second, third and higher orders, with the first-order tributary being typically the least in size. For example, a second-order tributary would be the result of two or more first-order tributaries combining to form the second-order tributary. Another method is to list tributaries from mouth to source, in the form of a tree structure , stored as

1470-562: The confluence of the Madison and Jefferson rivers, rather than the source of its longest tributary (the Jefferson). This contradicts the most common definition, which is, according to a US Army Corps of Engineers official on a USGS site, that "[geographers] generally follow the longest tributary to identify the source of rivers and streams." In the case of the Missouri River, this would have

1519-619: The edge of the watershed, or watershed divide. For example, the source of the Colorado River is at the Continental Divide separating the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean watersheds of North America . A river is considered a linear geographic feature, with only one mouth and one source. For an example, the Mississippi River and Missouri River sources are officially defined as follows: The verb "rise" can be used to express

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1568-473: The footsteps of important Hindu sages such as Swami Rama and Bengali Baba . People have also been known to bathe in the river during various religious events such as baptisms. Another river with the same name Mandakini and flowing northward has been described as a "lifeline" for the town of Chitrakoot in Madhya Pradesh. It is a tributary to river Yamuna. Many springs feed into the river at Sati Anusuiya ,

1617-486: The melting of snowcaps and increased rainfall, are also giving rise to lake outbursts and subsequent flash flooding. The Mandakini region is seismically and ecologically fragile due to its position along a collision zone . Well exposed crystalline rock groups in the Higher Himalayas and surrounding Kedarnath form the oldest crystalline base in the Himalayan region. This rock is highly susceptible to displacement and

1666-693: The midpoint. In the United States, where tributaries sometimes have the same name as the river into which they feed, they are called forks . These are typically designated by compass direction. For example, the American River in California receives flow from its North, Middle, and South forks. The Chicago River 's North Branch has the East, West, and Middle Fork; the South Branch has its South Fork, and used to have

1715-640: The natural flow of the river. The items being held, particularly the vīṇā , are significant symbols within Hinduism. In Purana and Itihasa (ancient Indian literature; commonly associated with legends and Indian lore), Mandākinī refers to the 'river which emerges from the holy mountain'. This is referring to Kulaparvata in Bhārata, a region south to the South of Hemādri . In Marathi -English, Mandākinī translates to 'the milky way' or 'the galaxy'. In Sanskrit -English

1764-428: The orientation of the tributary relative to the flow of the main stem river. These terms are defined from the perspective of looking downstream, that is, facing the direction the water current of the main stem is going. In a navigational context, if one were floating on a raft or other vessel in the main stream, this would be the side the tributary enters from as one floats past; alternately, if one were floating down

1813-502: The original and favoured course of the river. Because of the altitudinal variation of the Mandakini (altitude ranging from 210 to 7,187 m [689 to 23,579 ft] a.s.l), climate conditions vary throughout the region. A general increase in temperatures, which scientists from the Department of Water Resources Development and Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, attribute to climate change , has been recorded in

1862-628: The river changes names numerous times along its course. However, the source of the Thames in England is traditionally reckoned according to the named river Thames rather than its longer tributary, the Churn — although not without contention. When not listing river lengths, however, alternative definitions may be used. The Missouri River's source is named by some USGS and other federal and state agency sources, following Lewis and Clark 's naming convention, as

1911-471: The river increased approximately 406% with about 50% (7 km [4.3 mi]) of the single pedestrian route (14 km [8.7 mi]) between Gaurikund and Kedarnath being completely washed away. As a result, rescue operations were impeded, and evacuation was unable to be effectively completed. Over 1000 deaths of tourists, pilgrims and locals were recorded in the following months. Approximately 120 buildings were destroyed; 90 of these were surrounding

1960-595: The river source "move around" from month to month depending on precipitation or ground water levels. This definition, from geographer Andrew Johnston of the Smithsonian Institution , is also used by the National Geographic Society when pinpointing the source of rivers such as the Amazon or Nile . A definition given by the state of Montana agrees, stating that a river source is never a confluence but

2009-864: The river. Researchers from the Department School of Environmental Biology A.P.S. University, Rewa, observed high levels of alkalinity (Minimum pH value was 7.23 in Sphatikshila ghat, and maximum pH value was 7.80 in Arogyadham ghat) within the water. The following activities were observed by these same researchers during sampling of the Mandakini at various locations; religious, tourism, bathing, washing, open defecation , cultivation, sand, stone and gravel recovery, stone crushing, road construction , mining , cremation ; fishing , surface drainage, irrigation , drinking water, rafting, and interacting with wildlife habitats. Garbage from religious practice such as Hawan

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2058-463: The river. Many towns are along the banks of the Mandakini and use the river as a dumping source. Populations of these towns are witnessing explosive growth, and many of these inhabitants are below the poverty line. A number of drains carrying wastewater from towns join the river at various points, increasing the pollution load of the river and altering its water quality. Chitrakoot, for example, possesses gutter and sewer lines that are directly connected to

2107-582: The source be well upstream from Lewis and Clark's confluence, "following the Jefferson River to the Beaverhead River to Red Rock River , then Red Rock Creek to Hell Roaring Creek ." Sometimes the source of the most remote tributary may be in an area that is more marsh -like, in which the "uppermost" or most remote section of the marsh would be the true source. For example, the source of the River Tees

2156-617: The source of the Nile River not as Lake Victoria 's outlet where the name "Nile" first appears, which would reduce the Nile's length by over 900 km (560 mi) (dropping it to fourth or fifth on the list of world's rivers), but instead use the source of the largest river flowing into the lake, the Kagera River . Likewise, the source of the Amazon River has been determined this way, even though

2205-518: The source, regardless of what name that watercourse may carry on local maps and in local usage. This most commonly identified definition of a river source specifically uses the most distant point (along watercourses from the river mouth ) in the drainage basin from which water runs year-around ( perennially ), or, alternatively, as the furthest point from which water could possibly flow ephemerally . The latter definition includes sometimes-dry channels and removes any possible definitions that would have

2254-474: The surrounding region is 1,000–2,000 millimetres (39–79 in), which is elevated almost 70% in monsoon season (late July–October). This heavy rainfall is often responsible for rising water levels and intense flash floods. In conjunction with the collapse of a segment of the dammed Chorabari Lake in 2013, an intense patch of heavy rainfall led to the historical devastation of rural villages and death of thousands of locals, pilgrims and tourists. These are known as

2303-472: The tributary, the main stream meets it on the opposite bank of the tributary. This information may be used to avoid turbulent water by moving towards the opposite bank before approaching the confluence. An early tributary is a tributary that joins the main stem river closer to its source than its mouth, that is, before the river's midpoint ; a late tributary joins the main stem further downstream, closer to its mouth than to its source, that is, after

2352-406: The water. The highest discharge recorded (in 2018) was between 6 and 12 m/s (210 and 420 cu ft/s) observed from June to September with the average daily rainfall being 120–150 mm (4.7–5.9 in). The Mandakini's single source is the Chorabari Glacier. Chorabari is a medium-sized valley-type glacier that covers an area of approximately 6.6 km (2.5 sq mi) within

2401-581: The winter Chardham being offered. In 2011, more than 25 million tourists visited the river (for comparison, the State of Uttarakhand has a population of about 10 million). The health of the river and surrounding landforms have slowly been degraded, giving rise to environmental conservation projects such as the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary . The Mandakini is subject to heavy rainfall, especially during monsoon season. The annual rainfall within

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