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53-723: The campaign against the Malli (identified with the Malavas ) occurred a year after Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush , and eight years after the start of his campaigns against the Persian Empire. At this time, his conquests stretched from Greece into India; some of the Indian tribes had previously been part of the Persian Empire. The political situation in Greece was quiet. Alexander had defeated King Porus at

106-508: A Malava clan, and may have been responsible for the name "Malwa" being applied to the region. Post-Gupta records attest to the Malava presence in multiple regions, including present-day Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat . Xuanzang (also 7th century) locates Malava (transcribed as 摩臘婆, "Mo-la-p'o") in present-day Gujarat, describing Kheta ( Kheda ) and Anandapura ( Vadnagar ) as parts of the Malava country. Xuanzang suggests that this Malava country

159-541: A large population of them) migrated to present-day Rajasthan, possibly as a result of the Indo-Greek occupation of Punjab. They were probably headquartered at Malavanagara (present-day Nagar Fort), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered. These coins bear the legend Malavanam jayah ( lit.   ' victory of the Malavas ' ), and have been dated between 250 BCE and 250 CE. Several inscriptions dated in

212-448: A tent. An incision had to be made in order to get the arrow out, but there was indecision as to who should perform the procedure. According to Arrian, some authors "stated that Critodemus, a physician of Cos , an Asclepiad by birth, made an incision into the injured part and drew the weapon out of the wound", while others claimed "that as there was no physician present at the critical moment, Perdiccas [...] at Alexander's bidding", removed

265-516: A total of 90,000 foot , 10,000 horse and 900 chariots . In spite of the fact that the two had traditionally been enemies, it was reported that they had laid aside their disputes to fight the Macedonians. Alexander decided to prevent them from joining their forces. It was Alexander's habit, as with his father, to campaign in all seasons of the year. In Greece, this meant the winter, but in India, it meant

318-416: A unit whose lines of communication were compromised was vulnerable to becoming isolated and destroyed, as the means for requesting reinforcements and resupply is lost. The standard military abbreviation is LOC. There is also SLOC for Sea Line of Communication , GLOC for Ground Line of Communication , or ALOC for Air Line of Communication . The interdiction of supplies and reinforcements to units closer to

371-544: Is the route that connects an operating military unit with its supply base . Supplies and reinforcements are transported along the line of communication. Therefore, a secure and open line of communication is vital for any military force to continue to operate effectively. Prior to the advent of the use of the telegraph and radio in warfare, lines of communication were also the routes used by dispatch riders on horseback and runners to convey and deliver orders and battle updates to and from unit commanders and headquarters. Thus,

424-659: The Battle of the Hydaspes in May 326 BC, and then stayed in his territory for thirty days. During this time, he reconciled King Porus and his other ally, Taxiles , with each other, as they were both to be his new vassals. Alexander achieved this by arbitrating their disputes and then arranging a family alliance. He then marched north-east toward the Glaukanokoi, and received the submission of their thirty-seven cities. Abisares of Kashimir submitted to

477-568: The Lata country (southern Gujarat) to check the advance of the Gurjara-Pratiharas into Malava. Although the region that ultimately came to be known as Malwa included Ujjain , the post-Gupta records distinguish between the territory of the Malavas and the region around Ujjain. Banabhatta 's Kadambari (7th century) describes Vidisha in present-day eastern Malwa as the capital of the Malavas, and Ujjayini (Ujjain) in present-day western Malwa as

530-601: The Malava era have been found in various parts of Rajasthan, which suggests that the Malava influence extended to a wider part of Rajasthan. It is also said that the Malavas, originally residing in the Punjab region, migrated to Central India/Rajasthan due to the Huna invasion. The Malavas ultimately migrated to the Malwa region in central India: this region was named after them some time after

583-700: The Punjab region at the time of Alexander 's invasion in the 4th century BCE. Later, the Malavas migrated southwards to present-day Rajasthan , and ultimately to Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat . Their power gradually declined as a result of defeats against the Western Satraps (2nd century CE), the Gupta emperor Samudragupta (4th century), and the Chalukya emperor Pulakeshin II (7th century). The Malwa region in central India and

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636-569: The region of Punjab with the same name are both named after them. The Malava era , which later came to be known as Vikram Samvat, was probably first used by them. The Malavas are mentioned in several ancient Indian texts, including the Mahabharata and Mahabhashya . According to the Mahabharata , the hundred sons of the Madra king Ashvapati, the father of Savitri were known as the Malava s, after

689-699: The 10th century onward, historical records use the term "Malavas" to refer to the Paramaras , who ruled the present-day Malwa region. It is probable that the Paramaras were descended from the ancient Malavas. However, they came to be called "Malavas" after they started ruling the Malwa region, which was named after the ancient Malavas. In the Yadava-prakasha's Vijayanti (c. 11th century), Avanti (the area around Ujjain) and Malava are stated to be identical. Thus, it appears that

742-693: The 2nd century CE. Around 120 CE, the Malavas are mentioned as besieging the king of the Uttamabhadras to the south, but the Uttamabhadras were finally rescued by the Western Satraps , and the Malvas were crushed. The account appears in an inscription at the Nashik Caves , made by Nahapana 's viceroy Ushavadata : ... And by order of the Lord I went to release the chief of the Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for

795-481: The Five Rivers" - so it was necessary to drag the boats from one to the next. The Hydaspes and Acesines were dangerous to sail down in this area, and the Macedonians sustained considerable damage to some of their ships, in addition to some casualties. They used two sorts of vessels, warships and the transport ships known as "round vessels". The transport ships were not damaged, as their round hulls helped them navigate

848-582: The Macedonians as well, and gave them many gifts, including forty elephants. Alexander proposed to march further east to the River Ganges and fight the powerful empires of the Nanda and the Gangaridai . According to the second century Greek historian Arrian , he expressed his thoughts thus: Now if anyone desires to hear where our warfare will find its end and limit, let him know that the distance from where we are to

901-544: The Macedonians formed up and circled around the Mallians, attacking them in the flank and rear. Eventually, the Macedonian light infantry came up, and the Mallians lost heart and fled to the city of Mallians. Alexander followed them to the city, and then rested his columns for the rest of the day. Alexander arranged two separate forces, one to be led by himself and the other by Perdiccas. The Indians almost immediately retreated into

954-560: The Malavas is not certain, but modern scholars generally connect them with the " Malli " or "Malloi" mentioned in the ancient Greek accounts, which describe Alexander 's war against them. At the time of Alexander's invasion in the 4th century BCE, the Malloi lived in present-day Punjab region , in the area to the north of the confluence of the Ravi and the Chenab rivers. Later, the Malavas (or at least

1007-478: The army marched 45 miles (72 km) in about 24 hours. Arriving near the city of Kot Kamalia at daybreak, Alexander rode ahead with his Companion cavalry and totally surprised the Mallians ;— so much so that many of them were still outside the city. As Alexander had expected, they did not think he would cross the desert. A vast number of them were slain, and Alexander chased those whom he could not massacre into

1060-441: The army, four days away from Alexander's location, heard that he was dead. Rumours spread like wildfire, and when reports came in that he was alive and was recovering, they would not believe it. He was eventually placed upon a boat so that he and his men could see one another, with Alexander ordering "the tent covering to be removed from the stern, that he might be visible to all." In spite of this, his troops were initially still under

1113-559: The arrow with his sword, causing "a copious effusion of blood" which rendered Alexander unconscious. The soldiers were very anxious about his health, since they believed he was the only one who could lead them "back in safety to their own country, being quite enclosed by so many warlike nations, some of whom had not yet submitted, and who they conjectured would fight stoutly for their freedom; while others would no doubt revolt as soon as they were relieved of their fear of Alexander." For some days he hovered between life and death. The main body of

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1166-636: The capital of the distinct Avanti kingdom. This Malava king was defeated by the Pushyabhuti king Rajyavardhana around 605 CE, as attested by Banabhatta's Harshacharita as well as the Pushyabhuti inscriptions. The distinction between these Malava and Ujjain regions is also found in the writings of the 9th century Muslim historian Al-Baladhuri , who states that Junayd , the Arab governor of Sindh , raided Uzain (Ujjain) and al-Malibah (Malava) around 725 CE. From

1219-483: The cavalry. The Mallians fled without the Macedonian infantry even joining battle. Alexander pursued them with his cavalry for 5 miles (8.0 km). The Mallians, realising how small the number of Macedonian cavalry was, chose to stop and fight them. Arrian estimated that there were fifty thousand Mallians at this point. As expert as the Companion cavalry was, Alexander had placed himself in a vulnerable situation. However,

1272-406: The citadel. The Macedonians followed. Alexander led a siege of the citadel, bringing his phalanx up towards the walls. The citadel was burnt, and five thousand Mallians died within its walls. After taking a single day's rest, Alexander headed for the city of Mallians (this city has been identified as present-day Multan , although this identification is not certain). However, the Mallians had crossed

1325-450: The city that he was currently besieging, employing siege equipment such as the torsion catapult . The torsion catapult was the most powerful of the era, and had revolutionised siege warfare; Alexander would use it to capture all the other cities in the region. Alexander's army then overcame the city's garrison, two thousand strong, and killed them all. When Perdiccas arrived at the town he was supposed to take, he found it empty; he chased down

1378-455: The city. He then created a cordon of cavalry around this relatively small town, and awaited the arrival of his infantry. When the infantry arrived, Alexander detached Perdiccas with the cavalry of Cleitus the White and his own cavalry, and ordered him to surround another Mallian city to the south-east. However, he gave him specific instructions not to actually besiege the city, for fear that some of

1431-494: The desert, and was to take upon itself the most difficult work, as was his habit. His force consisted of hypaspists , archers, Agrianians , Peithon 's brigade of the phalanx , the horse archers and half the Companion cavalry . While it was a difficult march across the desert, the march was to serve two purposes; first it was to surprise the Mallians, secondly it was to afford him a strategic position from which he could drive them to

1484-421: The difficult channels. By contrast, the warships had considerable difficulties, and many were destroyed. Their double rows of oars meant that the bottom row of oars would get caught on the river bank. At one point Alexander even took off his armour, preparing to jump in the water, for fear that his ship was going to sink. However, the Macedonians got through. Arriving in the confederacies' territory, they set about

1537-501: The forests in the area alongside the Hydraotis. The Malli offered battle to Alexander on the high ground of the western bank of the Hydraotis. However, Alexander and his army had become such an object of fear in their eyes that he decided to charge them across the river. This was not a new tactic, as his father Phillip II had perfected the cavalry arm of Macedon to such an extent that the infantry, on many occasions, would only attack after

1590-441: The impression that he was dead, and that "his corpse was being conveyed on the vessel", until "he stretched out his hand to the multitude". However, his health was in such a delicate state that during his course down the river they would not even row the boat, for fear that the oars slapping the water would disturb him. Four days afterwards, the Macedonians reached a fertile country which the natives had completely deserted. Alexander

1643-449: The inhabitants of his newly conquered territories. This marked change in policy was intended as an example to the other tribes. It was done, allegedly, to secure the Macedonians' line of communications , which, being already over-extended, were at a serious risk of being cut. They extended all the way from Babylon to the Punjab, if they were cut anywhere the entire expedition could have been compromised. No half measures were taken in securing

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1696-414: The inhabitants would flee and give news of what was going on to others in the area, giving them time to escape. Alexander desired that Perdiccas should await his own arrival with the rest of the force. This is another example of Alexander taking up each and every task he deemed to be important in person, this was a practice he repeated throughout all of his campaigns. It was soon after this that Alexander took

1749-432: The inner area of the citadel, where he killed the Mallians' leader. However, during the fighting an arrow penetrated Alexander's lung, severely wounding him. The Macedonians believed Alexander to be dead. After gaining entrance to the city, they planned to kill everyone in revenge. When the Macedonians reached Alexander, "who was lying in a faint condition", some of them placed him on a shield and quickly ran back with him to

1802-642: The last seventy days. At the Battle of Hydaspes they had suffered many casualties. The Nanda Empire was rumoured to be even more powerful than Porus, who was only a princeling. Coenus' spoke on behalf of the troops and pleaded with Alexander to allow them to return, to the agreement of the other officers. Alexander finally gave in. Shortly after this, Memnon brought up reinforcements of 6,000 cavalry from Thrace, and 7,000 infantry. The reinforcements brought with them twenty five thousand suits of armour. After uniting with Memnon's forces, Alexander decided to head south, following

1855-471: The lines of communications in their extended condition. Alexander was determined not to let the Mallians escape him, and therefore he planned a sophisticated campaign that allowed him to retain the interior lines , so that he could reinforce himself at any threatened point. He added Philip's corps, Polyperchon 's brigade, the horse-bowmen and the elephants which had been marching down the river, to Craterus ' force. He then ordered Nearchus to sail down

1908-429: The main citadel. The citadel was substantial, with its walls a mile around. But Alexander was able to force one of the gates, and made his way into the outer parts of the citadel. There the Macedonians began to undermine the next layer of walls. Alexander quickly became impatient at the pace of the siege, so he grabbed a ladder and went up it himself. He was followed by only a few soldiers. Arrian reports three soldiers on

1961-569: The name of their mother, Malavi. Although Malavas are not specifically mentioned by Panini, his sutra V.3.117 mentions a group of tribes called ayudhajivi samgha s (those who live by the profession of arms) and the Kashika includes the Malavas and the Kshudrakas in this group of tribes. The Malavas are also mentioned in the Mahabhashya (IV.1.68) of Patanjali . The location of the original homeland of

2014-471: The news of the alliance in November, Alexander raced out to prevent the junction of the two tribes. He reached the area in five days by sailing down the Hydaspes with the fleet he had recently built. The boats had been built to be taken apart and put back together, so that they could be conveyed across the Punjab. There were, as there are now, five rivers in the Punjab - it is sometimes referred to as "The Valley of

2067-503: The north were still captured and slaughtered. At this point, the tentative alliance between the Mallians and the Oxydracians began to break down. The two tribes could not agree on who was to lead them, and their forces retreated to their strongholds, each group to fend for themselves. After starting across the desert, Alexander marched continuously, with only a single half-day halt at a place where water could be obtained. His detachment of

2120-763: The present-day definition of Malwa became popular in the later half of the 10th century. The era, which later became known as the Vikrama Samvat is associated with the Malavas. Initially it was mentioned as the Krita era and then as the Malavagans era. Most probably this era was mentioned as the Vikrama era for the first time in the Dholpur stone inscription of Chaitravamasakulam ruler Chaitarmahasena in 898 CE. Line of communication A line of communication (or communications )

2173-628: The rainy season by the Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching) as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors. In the 4th century CE, during the reign of the Gupta emperor Samudragupta , the Malavas most probably lived in Rajasthan and western Malwa. The Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta names the Malavas among the tribes subjugated by him: (Lines 22–23) ( Samudragupta , whose) formidable rule

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2226-493: The rainy season or cold season. The Mallian alliance was unaware of this practice, and therefore might have expected more time to prepare for Alexander's advance. Throughout his career, Alexander made many celebrated marches in spite of difficult conditions. After the Battle of Gaugamela Alexander and his forces are alleged to have reached the Great Zab , 34 miles (55 km) from the battlefield, only one day later. Upon receiving

2279-644: The river Ganges is no longer great; and this you will find is connected to the Hyrcanian sea; for the great sea surrounds the entire earth. I will also demonstrate to the Macedonians and their allies not only that the Indian gulf is confluent with the Persian, but the Hycranian gulf is confluent with the Indian. At the Beas River , his army mutinied. They did not share his ambition and wished to return home. It had been raining for

2332-542: The river Hydaspes, after the omens ostensibly declared it unfavourable to march further east. Initially, the fleet and army just sailed down the river, occasionally marching short distances inland. Only slight opposition was experienced. Alexander received news that the Mallians and the Oxydracians had decided to trade hostages with each other, and moved all their valuables into their fortified cities. They decided to combine their forces in order to prevent him from marching through their territory. Reports suggested that they had

2385-415: The river already, and were awaiting his arrival on the western bank. Before continuing his campaign against the Mallians, Alexander sent Peithon and Demetrius back towards the river, the forests, and the desert. Their orders were to kill anyone who did not submit. The reason was that so many of the cities were deserted when Alexander's forces reached them. Refugees from these cities had been taken prisoner in

2438-464: The river with the fleet and establish a base to conduct further operations at the junction of the Acesines and the Hydraotis. In addition, the base would be used to catch any escaping Mallians. Three days later, Alexander ordered Craterus to follow him down the river on the right bank. Alexander divided his army into three parts and crossed over onto the left bank. His own force was to march directly across

2491-482: The south, so that they would be pressed towards the rest of his forces. Hephaestion 's force was ordered to march opposite Craterus' force, on the left bank of the same river. He was sent five days ahead of Alexander, in order to ensure that any retreating forces Alexander impelled would be easily caught if they managed to evade Craterus. Ptolemy I Soter's force was ordered to follow Alexander's march three days later, in order to ensure that any Mallians that did escape to

2544-512: The survivors and put them to the sword. Alexander allowed his men to rest until the first watch of the night. After this, the Macedonians continued to pursue the Mallians, the next town being the modern Brahmin town of Atari . Upon arriving, Alexander immediately sent his phalanx forward and prepared to undermine the city walls. However, the Indians, who were by now familiar with Alexander's expertise in besieging, decided they could hold out better in

2597-523: The task of pacification. While their ships were undergoing repairs, the Macedonians first attacked a tribe to the west called the Sibea. This tribe, alleged to have 40,000 warriors, was on the right bank, and thus the Macedonians had to cross the river in order to attack them. The Macedonians destroyed their capital city and burned their crops, slew all the males, and enslaved the women and children. Previously, Alexander had been scrupulous about being merciful towards

2650-584: The wall, Abreas, Peucestas, and Leonnatus. Plutarch reports only two: Peucestas and Limnaeus. Either report confirms one of them dies: Abreas or Limnaeus respectively. The rest of the soldiers, nervous about the safety of their king, crowded the ladders to get up so that they could protect him. There were too many of them, and the ladders collapsed under the weight. The Mallians realised who Alexander was, and focused their energies on him. Many of Alexander's men held out their arms and called for him to jump down to them. The King, however, would not. Alexander leaped into

2703-487: Was a part of the Maitraka kingdom. Like Banabhatta, he describes Ujjayini ("Wu-she-yen-na") as a distinct territory, but unlike Banabhatta, he locates Malava to the west of Ujjayini. The 7th century Aihole inscription of the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II , who defeated the Malavas, also locates them in present-day Gujarat. The 9th century Rashtrakuta records state that their emperor Govinda III stationed governor Kakka in

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2756-581: Was confronted by some of his close companions. They told him that he should not expose himself so recklessly in battle. Alexander received the final submission of the Malli, who had submitted after the capture of their capital city. He sent their ambassadors away, and they returned later with 300 four horse chariots. In addition to this, Alexander also received 1,000 Indian shields, a number of lions and 100 talents . Malavas The Malavas ( Brahmi script : 𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀸𑀭𑀯 Mmālava ) or Malwas were an ancient Indian tribe. They are believed to have lived in

2809-457: Was propitiated with the payment of all tributes, execution of orders and visits (to his court) for obeisance by such frontier rulers as those of Samataṭa , Ḍavāka , Kāmarūpa , Nēpāla , and Kartṛipura , and, by the Mālavas, Ārjunāyanas , Yaudhēyas , Mādrakas , Ābhīras , Prārjunas, Sanakānīkas, Kākas, Kharaparikas and other ( tribes )." The Aulikaras who ruled in the Malwa region may have been

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