87-695: Mahanoy Creek is a 51.6-mile-long (83.0 km) tributary of the Susquehanna River in Northumberland and Schuylkill counties, Pennsylvania . There are at least 35 sources of acid mine drainage in the creek's watershed . Anthracite was mined in the upper part of the Mahanoy Creek watershed in the 19th and 20th centuries. Mahanoy Creek's tributaries include Schwaben Creek, Zerbe Run, Little Mahanoy Creek, Shenandoah Creek, and North Mahanoy Creek. Little Mahanoy Creek and Schwaben Creek are two streams in
174-434: A navigational context, if one were floating on a raft or other vessel in the main stream, this would be the side the tributary enters from as one floats past; alternately, if one were floating down the tributary, the main stream meets it on the opposite bank of the tributary. This information may be used to avoid turbulent water by moving towards the opposite bank before approaching the confluence. An early tributary
261-689: A base metal-free effluent that can be discharged or further treated to reduce sulfate, and a metal sulfide concentrate with possible economic value. As an alternative, several researchers have investigated the precipitation of metals using biogenic sulfide. In this process, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) oxidize organic matter using sulfate as terminal electron acceptor , instead of oxygen . Their metabolic products include bicarbonate produced by organic matter oxidation, which can neutralize water acidity, and hydrogen sulfide , which forms highly insoluble precipitates with many toxic metals. Although promising, this process has been slow in being adopted for
348-429: A concentration of at least 0.02 micrograms per liter of cobalt, with a maximum concentration of 530 micrograms per liter. Most sites have a concentration of at least 0.5 micrograms per liter of copper, with a maximum concentration of 150 micrograms per liter. The lead concentration is above 0.05 micrograms per liter in most sites and can be up to 6.4 micrograms per liter. The maximum nickel concentration in Mahanoy Creek
435-416: A course going through Mahanoy Creek was planned by 1832. In the late 19th century, a company piped waste from the production of illuminating gas (for gas lighting ) into Mahanoy Creek. In Gilberton, Mahanoy Creek used to be underground, but surfaced before 1940. Anthracite was mined in the upper part of the Mahanoy Creek watershed from 1840 until 1950. However, farming was also done in the western part of
522-444: A larger stream ( main stem or "parent" ), river, or a lake . A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean . Tributaries, and the main stem river into which they flow, drain the surrounding drainage basin of its surface water and groundwater , leading the water out into an ocean. The Irtysh is a chief tributary of the Ob river and is also the longest tributary river in
609-414: A left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek. These naming conventions are reflective of the circumstances of a particular river's identification and charting: people living along the banks of a river, with a name known to them, may then float down the river in exploration, and each tributary joining it as they pass by appears as a new river, to be given its own name, perhaps one already known to
696-536: A lime silo, a mixing tank and a settling pond. These systems are far less costly to build, but are also less efficient (longer reaction times are required, and they produce a discharge with higher trace metal concentrations, if present). They would be suitable for relatively small flows or less complex acid mine drainage. A calcium silicate feedstock, made from processed steel slag , can also be used to neutralize active acidity in AMD systems by removing free hydrogen ions from
783-571: A low pH, as is found in the acidic waters produced by pyrite oxidation. In the coal belt around the south Wales valleys in the UK highly acidic nickel-rich discharges from coal stocking sites have proved to be particularly troublesome. Acid mine drainage also affects the wildlife living within the affected body of water. Aquatic macroinvertebrates living in streams or parts of streams affected by acid mine drainage show fewer individuals, less diversity, and lower biomass. Many species of fish also cannot tolerate
870-424: A poorly soluble calcium sulfate layer onto the surface of limestone chips, binding the material and preventing further neutralization. Depending on the volume and flowrate of acid effluents to be neutralised and the scale of industrial installations, a commonly but more expensive commercial process for treating acid mine drainage is precipitation with lime in a high-density sludge (HDS) process. In this application,
957-515: A short distance, it leaves behind the Line Mountain/Mahanoy Mountain valley and picks up Zerbe Run . Mahanoy Creek then turns southwest and passes by Dornsife before cutting through a gap between Little Mountain and Line Mountain and exiting Little Mahanoy Township. At this point, the creek enters Jackson Township and picks up Schwaben Creek , its last tributary, after some distance. Mahanoy Creek then meanders west to its mouth on
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#17328588561141044-414: A slurry of lime ( CaO – Ca(OH) 2 after hydration) is dispersed into a tank containing acid mine drainage and recycled sludge to increase water pH to about 9. At this pH, most toxic metals become insoluble and precipitate, aided by the presence of recycled sludge. Optionally, air can be injected in the tank to oxidize iron(II) and manganese(II) and assist in their precipitation. The resulting slurry
1131-561: A stable dispersed state – effectively interrupting metal precipitation and reducing vulnerability of the material to armoring (formation of an impervious crust around material grains preventing their dissolution and decreasing their reactivity). Cation exchange processes have previously been investigated as a potential treatment for acid mine drainage. The principle is that an ion-exchange resin can remove potentially toxic metals (cationic resins), or chlorides, sulfates and uranyl sulfate complexes (anionic resins) from mine water . Once
1218-410: A third stream entering between two others is designated the middle fork; or the streams are distinguished by the relative height of one to the other, as one stream descending over a cataract into another becomes the upper fork, and the one it descends into, the lower ; or by relative volume: the smaller stream designated the little fork, the larger either retaining its name unmodified, or receives
1305-743: A variety of technical reasons. Many technologies exist for the treatment of AMD. With the advance of large-scale sequencing strategies , genomes of microorganisms in the acid mine drainage community are directly sequenced from the environment. The nearly full genomic constructs allows new understanding of the community and able to reconstruct their metabolic pathways. Our knowledge of acidophiles in acid mine drainage remains rudimentary: we know of many more species associated with ARD than we can establish roles and functions. Scientists have recently begun to explore acid mine drainage and mine reclamation sites for unique soil bacteria capable of producing new pharmaceutical leads. Soil microbes have long been
1392-566: A yellow-orange solid colloquially known as yellow boy . Other types of iron precipitates are possible, including iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, and sulfates such as jarosite . All these precipitates can discolor water and smother plant and animal life on the streambed, disrupting stream ecosystems (a specific offense under the Fisheries Act in Canada). The process also produces additional hydrogen ions, which can further decrease pH. In some cases,
1479-419: Is 66 percent forested land, 21 percent agricultural land, 9 percent barren mined land, and 4 percent developed land. However, the upper part of Mahanoy Creek is 50 percent forested land, 44 percent mined land, 5 percent developed land, and less than 1 percent agricultural land. There are six boroughs in the upper part of the watershed. There are a total of 28 municipalities in the watershed. The eastern edge of
1566-482: Is 895 micrograms per liter and the maximum silver concentration is 0.9 micrograms per liter. The concentration of thallium does not exceed 0.02 micrograms per liter and the concentration of vanadium does not exceed 1 microgram per liter. The maximum concentration of zinc is 3.2 milligrams per liter. Some water from the Shamokin Creek watershed enters the Mahanoy Creek watershed via various mine tunnels, mainly
1653-507: Is a tributary that joins the main stem river closer to its source than its mouth, that is, before the river's midpoint ; a late tributary joins the main stem further downstream, closer to its mouth than to its source, that is, after the midpoint. In the United States, where tributaries sometimes have the same name as the river into which they feed, they are called forks . These are typically designated by compass direction. For example,
1740-438: Is an unprocessed raw material available in large quantities and the least expensive neutralisation agent, it can suffer from a number of disadvantages possibly limiting its applications. Indeed, small calcium carbonate grains of crushed limestone can be prone to the formation of a coating of gypsum ( CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O ) surrounded by a thin impermeable and protective film of less soluble Fe-Al hydroxysulfate. This coating
1827-481: Is considered a serious long-term environmental problem associated with mining. The chemistry of oxidation of pyrites, the production of ferrous ions and subsequently ferric ions, is very complex, and this complexity has considerably inhibited the design of effective treatment options. Although a host of chemical processes contribute to acid mine drainage, pyrite oxidation is by far the greatest contributor. A general equation for this process is: The oxidation of
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#17328588561141914-768: Is directed to a sludge-settling vessel, such as a clarifier . In that vessel, clean water will overflow for release, whereas settled metal precipitates (sludge) are recycled to the acid mine drainage treatment tank, with a sludge-wasting side stream. A number of variations of this process exist, as dictated by the chemistry of ARD, its volume, and other factors. Generally, the products of the HDS process also contain gypsum ( CaSO 4 ) and unreacted lime, which enhance both its settleability and resistance to re-acidification and metal mobilization. A general equation for this neutralisation process is: Less complex variants of this process, such as simple lime neutralization, may involve no more than
2001-414: Is in strip mines in the eastern part of Schuylkill County , near Buck Mountain. It heads west for a short distance before crossing under Pennsylvania Route 54 and entering Mahanoy City , where it picks up the tributary North Mahanoy Creek . Mahanoy Creek continues westward, heading into Mahanoy Township again, and goes through more strip mines. It begins paralleling Bear Ridge for several miles, passing
2088-476: Is iron-sulfide) within the surrounding rock and overburden generates acidity. Colonies of bacteria and archaea greatly accelerate the decomposition of metal ions, although the reactions also occur in an abiotic environment. These microbes, called extremophiles for their ability to survive in harsh conditions, occur naturally in the rock, but limited water and oxygen supplies usually keep their numbers low. Extremophiles known as acidophiles especially favor
2175-426: Is itself a copper-iron-sulfide and occurs with a range of other sulfides. Thus, copper mines are often major culprits of acid mine drainage. At some mines, acidic drainage is detected within 2–5 years after mining begins, whereas at other mines, it is not detected for several decades. In addition, acidic drainage may be generated for decades or centuries after it is first detected. For this reason, acid mine drainage
2262-484: Is located immediately south of Mahanoy Creek between Helfenstein and Dornsife. The Sen. James J. Rhoades Nature Trail is a walking trail along the creek in Barry Township. It was dedicated to James J. Rhoades on May 8, 2010. Catch and release fishing of smallmouth bass and largemouth bass is permitted on the creek. Tributary A tributary , or an affluent , is a stream or river that flows into
2349-627: Is named after Mahanoy Creek. Nathan Beach and several other people filed an application for 34 lots at the headwaters of Mahanoy Creek in 1794. The Danville and Pottsville Railroad had a terminus in Girardville, a community of Mahanoy Creek, by 1834. The Mahanoy Creek Navigation Company formed on March 22, 1827. The Mahanoy Creek Canal ran from the Susquehanna River to the coal mines in the upper part of Mahanoy Creek. A canal running from Chester County and Lancaster County to Pittsburgh with
2436-917: Is part of a synclinorium that runs from the northeast to the southwest, running between Hunter and Shenandoah . Rock formations in the watershed include the Pottsville Group and the Llewellyn Formation . These are found on the northern side of the creek's valley. There are 24 coal beds from the Pennsylvanian subperiod, which are part of the Llewellyn Formation and the Pottsville Formation. The coal beds are 0.6 feet (0.18 m) to 8.3 feet (2.5 m) thick. Mining of these coal beds has been done at depths of over 2,500 feet (760 m) underground. There are significant silt deposits on
2523-401: Is quite different from limestone, the ability of calcium silicate to neutralize acid solutions is equivalent to limestone as evidenced by its CCE value of 90–100% and its relative neutralizing value of 98% . In the presence of heavy metals, calcium silicate reacts in a different way than limestone. As limestone raises the pH of the bulk solution, when heavy metals are present, precipitation of
2610-403: Is sometimes referred to in the literature as an armor (shield, encrustation, rim, rind…). When present, it passivates the limestone surface, preventing calcite dissolution and the further release of bicarbonate in solution. This might explain why at Cwm Rheidol in mid Wales , the positive impact of limestone application has been much less than anticipated because of the formation of
2697-522: Is treated as acid rock drainage. These, combined with reduced pH, have a detrimental impact on the streams' aquatic environments. The same type of chemical reactions and processes may occur through the disturbance of acid sulfate soils formed under coastal or estuarine conditions after the last major sea level rise , and constitutes a similar environmental hazard . Historically, the acidic discharges from active or abandoned mines were called acid mine drainage, or AMD. The term acid rock drainage, or ARD,
Mahanoy Creek - Misplaced Pages Continue
2784-625: The American River in California receives flow from its North, Middle, and South forks. The Chicago River 's North Branch has the East, West, and Middle Fork; the South Branch has its South Fork, and used to have a West Fork as well (now filled in). Forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the handedness is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream. For instance, Steer Creek has
2871-595: The Locust Gap Tunnel , the Packer #5 Breach, the Packer #5 Borehole, and the Girard Mine seepage. The 15 most significant sources have discharges of between 29,200 liters per minute and 680 liters per minute. The pHs of the sources range from 3.9 to 6.7. The iron concentrations at these sites ranges from 2.1 to 18 milligrams per liter. The concentrations of manganese ranges from 0.95 to 6.4 milligrams per liter. The pH of
2958-466: The Mauch Chunk Formation is found in a substantial part of the watershed. The main rock types in the watershed are interbedded sedimentary rock, which occupies 70 percent of the watershed, and sandstone , which occupies 30 percent. A number of seeps , boreholes , and mine tunnels contribute water to Mahanoy Creek throughout large sections of the watershed. Mined areas in the upper part of
3045-468: The River Neath at Ynysarwed . Although abandoned underground mines produce most of the acid mine drainage, some recently mined and reclaimed surface mines have produced ARD and have degraded local ground-water and surface-water resources. Acidic water produced at active mines must be neutralized to achieve pH 6–9 before discharge from a mine site to a stream is permitted. In Canada, work to reduce
3132-498: The Susquehanna River north of Herndon and ten miles south of Sunbury . Mahanoy Creek's tributaries include Little Mahanoy Creek, Schwaben Creek, Shenandoah Creek, Waste House Run, North Mahanoy Creek, and Zerbe Run. There are also several unofficially named tributaries with local names, such as "Big Run" and "Big Mine Run". Only Schwaben Creek and Little Mahanoy Creek are unaffected by acid mine drainage . North Mahanoy Creek starts in unpolluted springs on Locust Mountain and meets
3219-574: The Western Middle Anthracite Field . There are at least 35 sources of acid mine drainage in the watershed. The watershed has a population of close to 45,000 people as of July 2009. A tract of land in the Mahanoy Creek watershed has been converted by the Mahanoy Creek Watershed Association into a wetland known as "The Swamp". It serves as a passive treatment system . This organization has also performed cleanups of
3306-518: The coal mine discharges in Pennsylvania have pH under 5. However, a portion of mine drainage in both the bituminous and anthracite regions of Pennsylvania is alkaline, because limestone in the overburden neutralizes acid before the drainage emanates. When the pH of acid mine drainage is raised past 3, either through contact with fresh water or neutralizing minerals, previously soluble iron(III) ions precipitate as iron(III) hydroxide ,
3393-399: The swallowtail shiner , the rosyface shiner , the river chub , the banded darter , and the shield darter . Brown trout , longnose dace , and eastern blacknose dace have also been observed in the watershed. Historically, deer came to the creek to consume salt . There are second-growth forests near Kehly Run, a tributary of Mahanoy Creek. The Pennsylvania State Game Land Number 84
3480-676: The 1980s to treat acid mine drainage generated by the abandoned coal mines in Eastern Appalachia . Generally, the wetlands receive near-neutral water, after it has been typically neutralized by a limestone-based treatment process. Metal precipitation occurs from their oxidation at near-neutral pH, complexation with organic matter, precipitation as carbonates or sulfides. The latter results from sediment-borne anaerobic bacteria capable of reducing sulfate ions into sulfide ions. These sulfide ions can then bind with heavy metal ions, precipitating heavy metals out of solution and effectively reversing
3567-777: The Doutyville, Helfenstein, the Locust Gap, and the Centralia Mine discharges. Water from Mahanoy Creek also flows through mine tunnels into Shamokin Creek. The discharge of the creek at various locations ranges from 0 to 320 cubic feet per second. The discharge of acid mine drainage in the creek ranges from 0 to 17.2 cubic feet per second. In 2001, the discharge was typically found to be higher in March than in August. While there are sewage-treatment plants in
Mahanoy Creek - Misplaced Pages Continue
3654-647: The Little Mahanoy Creek watershed. The Ashland basin has an area of 17.7 square miles. The next basin downstream is the Middle Basin, which drains the area where the creek flows between Mahanoy Mountain and Line Mountain, ending at Zerbe Run. This basin has an area of 38.7 square miles. The final basin of Mahanoy Creek is the Lower Basin, which is drained by Mahanoy Creek downstream of Zerbe Run. This basin has an area of 42.7 square miles. The Mahanoy Creek watershed
3741-442: The Mahanoy Creek watershed is marked by Locust Mountain and Vulcan Hill. The southern edge is formed by Broad Mountain, Fisher Ridge, and Line Mountain. The northern edge is formed by Little Mountain, Locust Mountain, and Mahanoy Mountain. The drainage system of the watershed is a trellis pattern , a dentritic pattern , or an angular drainage pattern. The streams in the Mahanoy Creek watershed tend to meander relatively little, but
3828-695: The United Kingdom, many discharges from abandoned mines are exempt from regulatory control. In such cases the Environment Agency and Natural Resources Wales working with partners such as the Coal Authority have provided some innovative solutions, including constructed wetland solutions such as on the River Pelenna in the valley of the River Afan near Port Talbot and the constructed wetland next to
3915-507: The abandoned mine drainage ranges from 0.01 to 33 milligrams per liter. The amount of dissolved aluminum in the creek ranges from 0.01 to 8.9 milligrams per liter and the concentration in the abandoned mine drainage ranges from under 0.01 to 17 milligrams per liter. The dissolved manganese concentration in the stream water ranges from 0.01 to 9.2 milligrams per liter and in the abandoned mine drainage it ranges from under 0.01 to 9.7 milligrams per liter. The concentration of dissolved sulfates in
4002-416: The bulk solution, thereby increasing pH. As the silicate anion captures H ions (raising the pH), it forms monosilicic acid (H 4 SiO 4 ), a neutral solute. Monosilicic acid remains in the bulk solution and play many roles in correcting the adverse effects of acidic conditions. In the bulk solution, the silicate anion is very effective in neutralizing H cations in the soil solution. While its mode-of-action
4089-458: The calcium silicate aggregates , as silicic acid species are adsorbed onto the metal hydroxide surface, the development of silica layers (mono- and bi-layers) lead to the formation of colloidal complexes with neutral or negative surface charges. These negatively charged colloids are electrostatically repelled by each other (as well as with the negatively charged calcium silicate granules). The sequestered metal colloids are stabilized and remain in
4176-449: The communities of St. Nicholas and Boston Run before entering Gilberton . In Gilberton, the creek passes under Pennsylvania Route 924 and goes through by the former Mahanoy Plane . Upon leaving Mahanoy Township, the creek enters Butler Township . Soon after entering this township, the creek passes through Girardville , picking up Shenandoah Creek . It parallels Pennsylvania Route 54 for some distance into Ashland . Upon leaving Ashland,
4263-420: The concentration of dissolved phosphorus ranges from less than 0.01 to 0.3 milligrams per liter. In the abandoned mine drainage, the range is 0 to 139 milligrams per liter. The concentration of arsenic is above 0.2 micrograms per liter at most sites in the Mahanoy Creek watershed. The maximum concentration is 7 micrograms per liter. The concentration of barium is above 10 micrograms per liter at all sites in
4350-438: The concentrations of iron hydroxides in yellow boy are so high, the precipitate can be recovered for commercial use in pigments. Many acid rock discharges also contain elevated levels of potentially toxic metals, especially nickel and copper with lower levels of a range of trace and semi-metal ions such as lead , arsenic , aluminium , and manganese . The elevated levels of heavy metals can only be dissolved in waters that have
4437-472: The contaminants are adsorbed , the exchange sites on resins must be regenerated, which typically requires acidic and basic reagents and generates a brine that contains the pollutants in a concentrated form. A South African company that won the 2013 IChemE award for water management and supply (treating AMD) has developed a patented ion-exchange process that treats mine effluents (and AMD) economically. Constructed wetlands systems have been proposed during
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#17328588561144524-515: The creek at Ashland, Girardville, and Helfenstein . The main stem of the creek is divided into several basins. One basin is the Upper Basin, which is drained by Mahanoy Creek and its tributaries upstream of Shenandoah Creek. It has an area of 21.8 square miles. Another basin is the Ashland Basin, which is drained by Mahanoy Creek and its tributaries between Shenandoah Creek and Big Run, not including
4611-418: The creek downstream of Ashland. In the watershed, there are a number of close-to-parallel ridges and valleys. These tend to be oriented in the same direction as the creek itself, east to west. The highest elevation in the Mahanoy Creek watershed is 2,090 feet (640 m) above sea level in the eastern part of the watershed, not far from Delano . The lowest elevation in the watershed is 420 feet (130 m) at
4698-524: The creek enters Northumberland County. Mahanoy Creek enters Northumberland County in East Cameron Township . It flows westward for a number of miles through a valley with Line Mountain to the south and Mahanoy Mountain to the north. The creek passes under Pennsylvania Route 125 in this valley. The creek passes into West Cameron Township , flowing west and goes through the township for several miles. It then flows into Little Mahanoy Township . After
4785-558: The creek stops paralleling Pennsylvania Route 54 and turns south through a gap in Ashland Mountain, leaving behind the strip mines. At Gordon , it picks up Little Mahanoy Creek and then turns west again, meandering out of Butler Township. The creek then briefly meanders through Barry Township before passing into Eldred Township . It flows on the northern side of a mountain in Weiser State Forest . Upon leaving Eldred Township,
4872-754: The creek's watershed by the Mahanoy Creek Watershed Association. They are the Mahanoy Creek Aerobic Wetlands, which were created in 2000; and the Bolich Property Wetlands, which were created in 2006. In the fall of 2000, twelve species of fish were observed during electrofishing . They included eastern blacknose dace , northern hognosed suckers, shiners , smallmouth bass , and rock bass . An October 2001 survey of Mahanoy Creek identified two species of fish each at Ashland and Girardville. There were 20 individuals at
4959-607: The creek. Large amounts of culm also flowed into it during this time. The layer of coal silt on the banks of the creek was 40 feet (12 m) by 1940. Several mines remain active in the 21st century, but they mostly reprocess coal waste. At least one covered bridge crosses Mahanoy Creek. It is called the Mahanoy Creek Bridge . It was built in 1940 in Northumberland County and is 152.9 feet (46.6 m) in length. Two passive treatment systems have been installed in
5046-416: The designation big . Tributaries are sometimes listed starting with those nearest to the source of the river and ending with those nearest to the mouth of the river . The Strahler stream order examines the arrangement of tributaries in a hierarchy of first, second, third and higher orders, with the first-order tributary being typically the least in size. For example, a second-order tributary would be
5133-856: The effects of acid mine drainage is concentrated under the Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND) program. Total liability from acid rock drainage is estimated to be between CA$ 2 billion and CA$ 5 billion . Over a period of eight years, MEND claims to have reduced ARD liability by up to CA$ 400 million , from an investment of CA$ 17.5 million . Often, limestone rocks or appropriate calcareous strata that could contribute to neutralize acid effluents are lacking, or insufficiently accessible (too short contact time with acidic waters flowing too fast, too low specific surface area , insufficient contact…), at sites affected by acidic rock drainage. In such cases, crushed limestone can be dumped on site as neutralizing agent. However, although limestone
5220-502: The effluent from constructed wetland receiving near-neutral water will be well-buffered at 6.5–7.0 and can readily be discharged. Some of metal precipitates retained in sediments are easily oxidised and remobilised when exposed to atmospheric oxygen (e.g., copper sulfide or elemental selenium ), and it is very important that the wetland sediments remain largely and permanently submerged to maintain them insoluble and immobile. Prolonged droughts caused by climate warming might compromise
5307-441: The entire process. The attractiveness of a constructed wetlands solution lies in its relative low cost. They are limited by the metal loads they can deal with (either from high flows or metal concentrations), though current practitioners have succeeded in developing constructed wetlands that treat high volumes (see description of Campbell Mine constructed wetland ) and/or highly acidic water (with adequate pre-treatment). Typically,
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#17328588561145394-532: The larger communities in the Mahanoy Creek watershed, there are also leaky sewage disposal systems that discharge sewage into the stream's tributaries. The creek experiences atmospheric disposition , a type of runoff. The watershed of Mahanoy Creek is in the Ridge and Valley Appalachians . The lower part of the creek's watershed is in the Northern Shale Valleys and Slopes Ecoregion . The Mahanoy Creek watershed
5481-409: The latter location and 22 at the former. There were also 13 species and 134 individuals at Gowen City , and 14 species and 545 individuals at the creek's mouth. Additionally, 1003 individuals and 20 species of fish were observed at the mouth of the tributary Schwaben Creek. White Suckers were found at each of the aforementioned sites. Other fish species found on Mahanoy Creek and Schwaben Creek include
5568-409: The low pH levels of abandoned mines. In particular, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a key contributor to pyrite oxidation. Metal mines may generate highly acidic discharges where the ore is a sulfide mineral or is associated with pyrite. In these cases the predominant metal ion may not be iron but rather zinc , copper , or nickel . The most commonly mined ore of copper, chalcopyrite ,
5655-614: The main creek meanders somewhat between Gordon and Lavelle and near its mouth. Mahanoy Creek's headwaters are close to the edge of the Susquehanna River watershed, near the Schuylkill River watershed. Mahanoy Creek's name comes from a corruption of the Delaware Indian word mahoni or maghonioy . The former word means "lick". The area was owned by the Iroquois before European settlers arrived. The community of Mahanoy City
5742-627: The main stem in Mahanoy City. There are strip mines in this tributary's watershed. Shenandoah Creek, whose tributaries include Kehley Run and Lost Creek, also begins on Locust Mountain and its watershed has an area of 11.6 square miles. Shenandoah Creek is contaminated by sewage and mine drainage. The tributary Little Mahanoy Creek starts in Frackville and its watershed has an area of 11.6 square miles. No mining has been done in this watershed. There are large quantities of dissolved iron and aluminum in
5829-403: The main stream. Distributaries are most often found in river deltas . Right tributary , or right-bank tributary , and left tributary , or left-bank tributary , describe the orientation of the tributary relative to the flow of the main stem river. These terms are defined from the perspective of looking downstream, that is, facing the direction the water current of the main stem is going. In
5916-415: The mine in order to prevent flooding. When a mine is abandoned, the pumping ceases, and water floods the mine. This introduction of water is the initial step in most acid rock drainage situations. Tailings piles or ponds, mine waste rock dumps , and coal spoils are also an important source of acid mine drainage. After being exposed to air and water, oxidation of metal sulfides (often pyrite , which
6003-444: The more generic name. In cases where drainage from a mine is not acidic and has dissolved metals or metalloids , or was originally acidic, but has been neutralized along its flow path, then it is described as "neutral mine drainage", "mining-influenced water" or otherwise. None of these other names have gained general acceptance. Sub-surface mining often progresses below the water table , so water must be constantly pumped out of
6090-546: The mouth. The elevations of the ridges tend to be between 1,400 feet (430 m) and 1,800 feet (550 m) above sea level, while the valleys are between 600 feet (180 m) and 800 feet (240 m) lower. The stream bed of Mahanoy Creek has an iron crust near Girardville, but some fish live in that area. Minerals in the acid mine drainage areas of the Mahanoy Creek watershed include goethite , ferrihydrite , schwertmannite , amorphous aluminum-hydroxysulfates, quartz , muscovite , kaolinite , and gypsum . Red shale of
6177-498: The pH and maintains the solubility of the ferric ion. Water temperatures as high as 47 °C (117 °F) have been measured underground at the Iron Mountain Mine , and the pH can be as low as −3.6. Organisms which cause acid mine drainage can thrive in waters with pH very close to zero. Negative pH occurs when water evaporates from already acidic pools thereby increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions. About half of
6264-464: The people who live upon its banks. Conversely, explorers approaching a new land from the sea encounter its rivers at their mouths, where they name them on their charts, then, following a river upstream, encounter each tributary as a forking of the stream to the right and to the left, which then appear on their charts as such; or the streams are seen to diverge by the cardinal direction (north, south, east, or west) in which they proceed upstream, sometimes
6351-532: The pollution. Among the macroinvertebrates, certain species can be found at only certain levels of pollution, while other species can be found over a wide range. In a mining setting it is leading practice to carry out a geochemical assessment of mine materials during the early stages of a project to determine the potential for AMD. The geochemical assessment aims to map the distribution and variability of key geochemical parameters, acid generating and element leaching characteristics. The assessment may include: In
6438-519: The poorly soluble metal hydroxides is accelerated and the tendency for an impermeable metal hydroxide coating, termed armoring , to form on limestone grains surface increases significantly. Limestone grains become coated by a rind of gypsum encapsulated itself in a thin external film of impermeable and protective Fe-Al hydroxysulfate. Armoring slows the CaCO 3 dissolution and prevents the limestone grains from releasing additional alkalinity in solution. In
6525-659: The proper functioning and the safety of some constructed wetlands if during extremely hot summer period water supply decreases and evaporation accelerates causing them to dry up. An example of an effective constructed wetland is on the Afon Pelena in the River Afan valley above Port Talbot where highly ferruginous discharges from the Whitworth mine have been successfully treated. Most base metals in acidic solution precipitate in contact with free sulfide, e.g. from H 2 S or NaHS. Solid-liquid separation after reaction would produce
6612-505: The result of two or more first-order tributaries combining to form the second-order tributary. Another method is to list tributaries from mouth to source, in the form of a tree structure , stored as a tree data structure . Acid mine drainage Acid mine drainage , acid and metalliferous drainage ( AMD ), or acid rock drainage ( ARD ) is the outflow of acidic water from metal mines and coal mines . Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of
6699-510: The rock weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances characteristic of mining and other large construction activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide minerals . Areas where the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites or highway construction ) may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid that drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly acidic, and in such cases it
6786-480: The stream itself ranges from 3.6 to 8.4, while the pH of the abandoned mine drainage ranges from 2.9 to 7.4. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Mahanoy Creek ranges from 2.5 to 13.1 milligrams per liter, while the concentration in the watershed's abandoned mine drainage ranges from 0.1 to 9.7 milligrams per liter. The dissolved iron concentration in the stream ranges from under 0.01 milligrams per liter to 6.8 milligrams per liter. The dissolved iron concentration in
6873-426: The sulfide to sulfate solubilizes the ferrous iron ( iron(II) ), which is subsequently oxidized to ferric iron ( iron(III) ): Either of these reactions can occur spontaneously or can be catalyzed by microorganisms that derive energy from the oxidation reaction. The ferric cations produced can also oxidize additional pyrite and reduce into ferrous ions: The net effect of these reactions is to release H , which lowers
6960-414: The waters of Mahanoy Creek ranges from 4 to 597 milligrams per liter. In the abandoned mine drainage in the creek's watershed, it ranges from 18 to 787 milligrams per liter. The dissolved nitrates concentration in the stream waters ranges from less than 0.01 to 6 milligrams per liter. The concentration in the abandoned mine drainage ranges from less than 0.01 to 0.4 milligrams per liter. In the stream water,
7047-426: The waters of Mahanoy Creek. Additionally, there are trace amounts of various metals, including cobalt , nickel , copper , zinc , and lead , sulfates , manganese , and beryllium . There are traces of numerous other metals in the waters, but their concentrations conform to drinking water standards. Out of the 35 or more acid mine drainage sources in the Mahanoy Creek watershed, the four most significant ones are
7134-496: The watershed have been said to "resemble a moonscape ". There are numerous large spoil piles in the upper one-third of the watershed. Some buildings the Mahanoy Creek valley are damaged by subsidence due to underground mining. The area of Mahanoy Creek's watershed is 157 square miles (407 square kilometers). The watershed is in Schuylkill, Northumberland, and Columbia County . 42 square miles (109 square kilometers) are located in
7221-406: The watershed in the early 20th century. Most of the deep mines ceased operation by 1960. Surface mines instead continued mining operations in the watershed. A total of 12 million short tons of anthracite were mined in the creek's watershed in 1917. This was 12% of the anthracite yield of the state of Pennsylvania in that year. In the 1910s, there were 40 washeries and collieries that drained into
7308-544: The watershed that are unaffected by acid mine drainage. Schwaben Creek has a higher number and diversity of fish species than the main stem. There are two passive treatment systems in the Mahanoy Creek watershed by the Mahanoy Creek Watershed Association. Coal mining has been done in the watershed since the 19th century and continues to some extent in the 21st century. The watershed is in the Western Middle Anthracite Coal Field. Mahanoy Creek's source
7395-425: The watershed, and the maximum concentration is 75 micrograms per liter. The beryllium concentration is above 0.05 micrograms per liter at most sites in the watershed, and in some places is as high as 16 micrograms per liter. The cadmium concentration is above 0.02 micrograms per liter in most sites and can be up to 4 micrograms per liter. The maximum chromium concentration is 9 micrograms per liter. Most sites have
7482-433: The world with a length of 4,248 km (2,640 mi). The Madeira River is the largest tributary river by volume in the world with an average discharge of 31,200 m /s (1.1 million cu ft/s). A confluence , where two or more bodies of water meet, usually refers to the joining of tributaries. The opposite to a tributary is a distributary , a river or stream that branches off from and flows away from
7569-452: Was introduced in the 1980s and 1990s to indicate that acidic drainage can originate from sources other than mines. For example, a paper presented in 1991 at a major international conference on this subject was titled: "The Prediction of Acid Rock Drainage – Lessons from the Database". Both AMD and ARD refer to low pH or acidic waters caused by the oxidation of sulfide minerals , though ARD is
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