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103-655: Magnolia is a large genus of about 210 to 340 flowering plant species in the subfamily Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae . The natural range of Magnolia species is disjunct , with a main center in east, south and southeast Asia and a secondary center in eastern North America , Central America , the West Indies , and some species in South America . Magnolia is an ancient genus. Fossilized specimens of M. acuminata have been found dating to 20 million years ago, and fossils of plants identifiably belonging to

206-615: A deist . The philosopher of biology Michael Ruse described Lamarck, "as believing in God as an unmoved mover, creator of the world and its laws, who refuses to intervene miraculously in his creation." Biographer James Moore described Lamarck as a "thoroughgoing deist". The historian Jacques Roger has written, "Lamarck was a materialist to the extent that he did not consider it necessary to have recourse to any spiritual principle... his deism remained vague, and his idea of creation did not prevent him from believing everything in nature, including

309-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

412-544: A 2004 classification by Figlar and Hans Peter Nooteboom . Species of Magnolia were listed under three subgenera , 12 sections , and 13 subsections. Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have led to some revisions of this system; for example, the subgenus Magnolia was found not to be monophyletic . A revised classification in 2020, based on a phylogenetic analysis of complete chloroplast genomes , abandoned subgenera and subsections, dividing Magnolia into 15 sections. The relationships among these sections are shown in

515-474: A French naturalist , biologist , academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws . Lamarck fought in the Seven Years' War against Prussia , and was awarded a commission for bravery on the battlefield. Posted to Monaco , Lamarck became interested in natural history and resolved to study medicine. He retired from

618-463: A big Magnolia or the different small genera. For example, Flora of China offers two choices: a large genus Magnolia , which includes about 300 species and everything in the Magnoliaceae except Liriodendron (tulip tree), or 16 different genera, some of them recently split out or re-recognized, each of which contains up to 50 species. The western co-author favors the big genus Magnolia , whereas

721-455: A botany book by James Francis Chomel. With a reduced pension of only 400 francs a year, Lamarck resolved to pursue a profession. He attempted to study medicine, and supported himself by working in a bank office. Lamarck studied medicine for four years, but gave it up under his elder brother's persuasion. He was interested in botany , especially after his visits to the Jardin du Roi , and he became

824-527: A change of name would be very undesirable for many people, especially in the horticultural branch. In Europe, Magnolia is even more or less a synonym for Yulania , since most of the cultivated species on this continent have Magnolia (Yulania) denudata as one of their parents. Most taxonomists who acknowledge close relations between Yulania and Michelia therefore support the third option and join Michelia with Magnolia . The same goes, mutatis mutandis , for

927-435: A eulogy to denigrate Lamarck: [Cuvier's] éloge of Lamarck is one of the most deprecatory and chillingly partisan biographies I have ever read—though he was supposedly writing respectful comments in the old tradition of de mortuis nil nisi bonum . While he was working on Hydrogéologie (1802), Lamarck had the idea to apply the principle of erosion to biology. This led him to the basic principle of evolution, which saw

1030-543: A force adapting animals to their local environments and differentiating them from each other. He believed that these forces must be explained as a necessary consequence of basic physical principles, favoring a materialistic attitude toward biology. Lamarck referred to a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving "up" a ladder of progress . He referred to this phenomenon as Le pouvoir de la vie or la force qui tend sans cesse à composer l'organisation (The force that perpetually tends to make order). Lamarck believed in

1133-496: A herbarium specimen (if there ever was one) of Plumier's Magnolia and had only his description and a rather poor picture at hand, he must have taken it for the same plant that was described by Catesby in his 1730 Natural History of Carolina . He placed it in the synonymy of Magnolia virginiana var. fœtida , the taxon now known as Magnolia grandiflora . Under Magnolia virginiana , Linnaeus described five varieties ( glauca , fœtida , grisea , tripetala , and acuminata ). In

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1236-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

1339-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

1442-407: A long time, while others could stay in close contact. To create divisions in the family (or even within the genus Magnolia ) solely based upon morphological characters has proven to be a nearly impossible task. By the end of the 20th century, DNA sequencing had become available as a method of large-scale research on phylogenetic relationships . Several studies, including studies on many species in

1545-475: A major work on the classification of invertebrates. In the work, he introduced definitions of natural groups among invertebrates. He categorized echinoderms , arachnids , crustaceans , and annelids , which he separated from the old taxon for worms known as Vermes . Lamarck was the first to separate arachnids from insects in classification, and he moved crustaceans into a separate class from insects. In 1802, Lamarck published Hydrogéologie , and became one of

1648-444: A more well-established alternative. Lamarck is usually remembered for his belief in the then commonly held theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics , and the use and disuse model by which organisms developed their characteristics. Lamarck incorporated this belief into his theory of evolution, along with other common beliefs of the time, such as spontaneous generation. The inheritance of acquired characteristics (also called

1751-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1854-449: A role for use and disuse as an evolutionary mechanism subsidiary to natural selection, most often in respect of disuse . He praised Lamarck for "the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic... world, being the result of law, not miraculous interposition". Lamarckism is also occasionally used to describe quasi-evolutionary concepts in societal contexts, though not by Lamarck himself. For example,

1957-506: A small element of his theory of evolution, and was in his time accepted by many natural historians. Lamarck's contribution to evolutionary theory consisted of the first truly cohesive theory of biological evolution, in which an alchemical complexifying force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity, and a second environmental force adapted them to local environments through use and disuse of characteristics, differentiating them from other organisms. Scientists have debated whether advances in

2060-401: A spicy condiment . In some Asian cuisines, the buds are pickled and used to flavor rice and scent tea. In Japan , the young leaves and flower buds of Magnolia hypoleuca are broiled and eaten as a vegetable. Older leaves are made into a powder and used as seasoning; dried, whole leaves are placed on a charcoal brazier and filled with miso , leeks, daikon , and shiitake , and broiled. There

2163-592: A student under Bernard de Jussieu , a notable French naturalist. Under Jussieu, Lamarck spent 10 years studying French flora. In 1776, he wrote his first scientific essay—a chemical treatise. After his studies, in 1778, he published some of his observations and results in a three-volume work, entitled Flore française . Lamarck's work was respected by many scholars, and it launched him into prominence in French science. On 8 August 1778, Lamarck married Marie Anne Rosalie Delaporte. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , one of

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2266-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

2369-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

2472-444: Is a type of miso which is seasoned with magnolia, hoba miso. The bark and flower buds of M. officinalis have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine , where they are known as hou po (厚朴). In Japan, kōboku , M. obovata , has been used in a similar manner. The cucumbertree, M. acuminata , grows to large size and is harvested as a timber tree in northeastern US forests. Its wood is sold as "yellow poplar" along with that of

2575-543: Is also the American deciduous M. acuminata (cucumber tree), which has recently attained greater status as the parent responsible for the yellow flower color in many new hybrids. Relations in the family Magnoliaceae have puzzled taxonomists for a long time. Because the family is quite old and has survived many geological events (such as ice ages, mountain formation, and continental drift), its distribution has become scattered. Some species or groups of species have been isolated for

2678-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

2781-410: Is now called soft inheritance , the inheritance of acquired characteristics, or simply "Lamarckism", though it forms only a part of Lamarck's thinking. However, in the field of epigenetics , evidence is growing that soft inheritance plays a part in the changing of some organisms' phenotypes; it leaves the genetic material ( DNA ) unaltered (thus not violating the central dogma of biology ) but prevents

2884-456: Is now known as Magnolia dodecapetala . Carl Linnaeus , who was familiar with Plumier's Genera , adopted the genus name Magnolia in 1735 in his first edition of Systema Naturae , without a description but with a reference to Plumier's work. In 1753, he took up Plumier's Magnolia in the first edition of Species Plantarum . There he described a monotypic genus, with the sole species being Magnolia virginiana . Since Linnaeus never saw

2987-407: Is remembered, at least in malacology , as a taxonomist of considerable stature. The modern era generally remembers Lamarck for a theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics , called Lamarckism (inaccurately named after him), soft inheritance, or use/disuse theory, which he described in his 1809 Philosophie zoologique . However, the idea of soft inheritance long antedates him, formed only

3090-419: Is sometimes regarded as believing in a teleological (goal-oriented) process where organisms became more perfect as they evolved, though as a materialist, he emphasized that these forces must originate necessarily from underlying physical principles. According to the paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn , "Lamarck denied, absolutely, the existence of any 'perfecting tendency' in nature, and regarded evolution as

3193-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

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3296-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

3399-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

3502-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

3605-464: The Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in 1793, Lamarck became a professor of zoology . In 1801, he published Système des animaux sans vertèbres , a major work on the classification of invertebrates , a term which he coined. In an 1802 publication, he became one of the first to use the term " biology " in its modern sense. Lamarck continued his work as a premier authority on invertebrate zoology . He

3708-407: The memetic theory of cultural evolution is sometimes described as a form of Lamarckian inheritance of nongenetic traits. During his lifetime, Lamarck named a large number of species, many of which have become synonyms. The World Register of Marine Species gives no fewer than 1,634 records. The Indo-Pacific Molluscan Database gives 1,781 records. Among these are some well-known families such as

3811-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

3914-772: The (former) genera Talauma and Dugandiodendron , which are then placed in subgenus Magnolia , and genus Manglietia , which could be joined with subgenus Magnolia or may even earn the status of an extra subgenus. Elmerrillia seems to be closely related to Michelia and Yulania , in which case it will most likely be treated in the same way as Michelia is now. The precise nomenclatural status of small or monospecific genera like Kmeria , Parakmeria , Pachylarnax , Manglietiastrum , Aromadendron , Woonyoungia , Alcimandra , Paramichelia , and Tsoongiodendron remains uncertain. Taxonomists who merge Michelia into Magnolia tend to merge these small genera into Magnolia s.l. as well. Botanists do not yet agree on whether to recognize

4017-538: The 2012 and 2020 classifications. (The exact circumscriptions of the corresponding taxa may not be the same.) In general, the genus Magnolia has attracted horticultural interest. Some, such as the shrub M. stellata (star magnolia) and the tree M. × soulangeana (saucer magnolia) flower quite early in the spring, before the leaves open. Others flower in late spring or early summer, including M. virginiana (sweetbay magnolia) and M. grandiflora (southern magnolia). The shape of these flowers lend themselves to

4120-504: The Academie for financial assistance. Lamarck was buried in a common grave of the Montparnasse cemetery for just five years, according to the grant obtained from relatives. Later, the body was dug up along with other remains and was lost. Lamarck's books and the contents of his home were sold at auction, and his body was buried in a temporary lime pit. After his death, Cuvier used the form of

4223-459: The Bahama Islands . These were the first works after Plumier's Genera that used the name Magnolia , this time for some species of flowering trees from temperate North America. The species that Plumier originally named Magnolia was later described as Annona dodecapetala by Lamarck , and has since been named Magnolia plumieri and Talauma plumieri (among a number of other names), but

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4326-623: The Chinese recognize the different small genera. Fossils assignable to Magnolia extend into the Paleogene , such as Magnolia nanningensis, named for mummified wood from the Oligocene of Guangxi , China, which has a close affinity to members of the modern section Michelia . In 2012, the Magnolia Society published on its website a classification of the genus produced by Richard B. Figlar, based on

4429-420: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

4532-491: The Magnoliaceae date to 95 million years ago. They are theorized to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles as they existed prior to the evolution of bees. Another aspect of Magnolia considered to represent an ancestral state is that the flower bud is enclosed in a bract rather than in sepals; the perianth parts are undifferentiated and called tepals rather than distinct sepals and petals . Magnolia shares

4635-576: The Paris Basin, he grew convinced that transmutation or change in the nature of a species occurred over time. He set out to develop an explanation, and on 11 May 1800 (the 21st day of Floreal , Year VIII, in the revolutionary timescale used in France at the time), he presented a lecture at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in which he first outlined his newly developing ideas about evolution. In 1801, he published Système des Animaux sans Vertèbres ,

4738-468: The Royal Garden, and also other objects of natural history, such as minerals and ores, that were not found in French museums. On 7 January 1786, his second son, Antoine, was born, and Lamarck chose Antoine Laurent de Jussieu , Bernard de Jussieu's nephew, as the boy's godfather. On 21 April the following year, Charles René, Lamarck's third son, was born. René Louiche Desfontaines , a professor of botany at

4841-404: The Royal Garden, was the boy's godfather, and Lamarck's elder sister, Marie Charlotte Pelagie De Monet, was the godmother. In 1788, Buffon's successor at the position of Intendant of the Royal Garden, Charles-Claude Flahaut de la Billaderie, comte d'Angiviller , created a position for Lamarck, with a yearly salary of 1,000 francs, as the keeper of the herbarium of the Royal Garden. In 1790, at

4944-553: The South and magnolia trees, the horrific image which inspired his poem, Lawrence Beitler 's 1930 photograph of the lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith following the robbery and murder of Claude Deteer, was taken in Marion, Indiana , where magnolia trees are less common. The Canadian artist, Sarah Maloney, has created a series of sculptures of magnolia flowers in bronze and steel, entitled First Flowers , in which she draws our attention to

5047-528: The ark clams ( Arcidae ), the sea hares ( Aplysiidae ), and the cockles ( Cardiidae ). The International Plant Names Index gives 58 records, including a number of well-known genera such as the mosquito fern ( Azolla ). The honeybee subspecies Apis mellifera lamarckii is named after Lamarck, as well as the bluefire jellyfish ( Cyaneia lamarckii ). A number of plants have also been named after him, including Amelanchier lamarckii (juneberry), Digitalis lamarckii , and Aconitum lamarckii , as well as

5150-585: The army after being injured in 1766, and returned to his medical studies. Lamarck developed a particular interest in botany, and later, after he published the three-volume work Flore françoise (1778), he gained membership of the French Academy of Sciences in 1779. Lamarck became involved in the Jardin des Plantes and was appointed to the Chair of Botany in 1788. When the French National Assembly founded

5253-463: The assembly of professors for the museum for a period of one year. In 1797, Charlotte died, and he married Julie Mallet the following year; she died in 1819. In his first six years as professor, Lamarck published only one paper, in 1798, on the influence of the moon on the Earth's atmosphere. Lamarck began as an essentialist who believed species were unchanging; however, after working on the molluscs of

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5356-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

5459-467: The blooms often appear before the leaves in spring. Cone-like fruits are often produced in the autumn. As with all Magnoliaceae , the perianth is undifferentiated, with 9–15 tepals in three or more whorls . The flowers are hermaphroditic, with numerous adnate carpels and stamens arranged in a spiral fashion on the elongated receptacle . The flowers' carpels are extremely tough to avoid damage from pollinating beetles. The fruit dehisces along

5562-445: The classical four elements . During Lamarck's lifetime, he became controversial, attacking the more enlightened chemistry proposed by Lavoisier . He also came into conflict with the widely respected palaeontologist Georges Cuvier , who was not a supporter of evolution. According to Peter J. Bowler , Cuvier "ridiculed Lamarck's theory of transformation and defended the fixity of species." According to Martin J. S. Rudwick : Cuvier

5665-414: The common name tulip tree that is sometimes applied to some Magnolia species. Hybridisation has been immensely successful in combining the best aspects of different species to give plants which flower at an earlier age than the parent species, as well as having more impressive flowers. One of the most popular garden magnolias, M . × soulangeana , is a hybrid of M. liliiflora and M. denudata . In

5768-514: The dorsal sutures of the carpels. The pollen is monocolpate , and the embryonic development is of the Polygonum type. Taxonomists , including James E. Dandy in 1927, have used differences in the fruits of Magnoliaceae as the basis for classification systems. The name Magnolia first appeared in 1703 in the Genera written by French botanist Charles Plumier (1646–1704), for a flowering tree from

5871-431: The dual symbols of beginnings in the flower, as both an evolutionary archetype and also one of the first trees to flower in spring (see illustration). Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

5974-439: The eastern United States, five native species are frequently in cultivation: M. acuminata (as a shade tree), M. grandiflora , M. virginiana , M. tripetala , and M. macrophylla . The last two species must be planted where high winds are not a frequent problem because of the large size of their leaves. The flowers of many species are considered edible. In parts of England , the petals of M. grandiflora are pickled and used as

6077-413: The expression of genes , such as by methylation to modify DNA transcription ; this can be produced by changes in behaviour and environment. Many epigenetic changes are heritable to a degree. Thus, while DNA itself is not directly altered by the environment and behavior except through selection, the relationship of the genotype to the phenotype can be altered, even across generations, by experience within

6180-417: The family Magnoliaceae, were carried out to investigate relationships. What these studies all revealed was that the genus Michelia and Magnolia subgenus Yulania were far more closely allied to each other than either one of them was to Magnolia subgenus Magnolia . These phylogenetic studies were supported by morphological data. As nomenclature is supposed to reflect relationships, the situation with

6283-598: The field of transgenerational epigenetics mean that Lamarck was to an extent correct, or not. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was born in Bazentin , Picardy , northern France, as the 11th child in an impoverished aristocratic family. Male members of the Lamarck family had traditionally served in the French army. Lamarck's eldest brother was killed in combat at the Siege of Bergen op Zoom , and two other brothers were still in service when Lamarck

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6386-425: The final necessary effect of surrounding conditions on life." Charles Coulston Gillispie , a historian of science, has written "life is a purely physical phenomenon in Lamarck", and argued that Lamarck's views should not be confused with the vitalist school of thought. The second component of Lamarck's theory of evolution was the adaptation of organisms to their environment. This could move organisms upward from

6489-400: The first theoretical frameworks of organic evolution . While this theory was generally rejected during his lifetime, Stephen Jay Gould argues that Lamarck was the "primary evolutionary theorist", in that his ideas, and the way in which he structured his theory, set the tone for much of the subsequent thinking in evolutionary biology, through to the present day. Developments in epigenetics ,

6592-408: The first to use the term biology in its modern sense . In Hydrogéologie , Lamarck advocated a steady-state geology based on a strict uniformitarianism . He argued that global currents tended to flow from east to west, and continents eroded on their eastern borders, with the material carried across to be deposited on the western borders. Thus, the Earth's continents marched steadily westward around

6695-417: The fluids in organs inheriting more complex forms and functions, thus passing on these traits to the organism's descendants. This was a reversal from Lamarck's previous view, published in his Memoirs of Physics and Natural History (1797), in which he briefly refers to the immutability of species. Lamarck stressed two main themes in his biological work (neither of them to do with soft inheritance). The first

6798-484: The following cladogram, as is the paraphyletic status of subgenus Magnolia . M. sect. Splendentes M. sect. Talauma M. sect. Gwillimia M. sect. Tuliparia M. sect. Macrophylla M. sect. Magnolia M. sect. Oyama M. sect. Rytidospermum   M. sect. Manglietia M. sect. Kmeria M. sect. Gynopodium M. sect. Tulipastrum M. sect. Yuliana M. sect. Maingola M. sect. Michelia The table below compares

6901-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

7004-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

7107-417: The globe. That year, he also published Recherches sur l'Organisation des Corps Vivants , in which he drew out his theory on evolution. He believed that all life was organized in a vertical chain, with gradation between the lowest forms and the highest forms of life, thus demonstrating a path to progressive developments in nature. In his own work, Lamarck had favored the then-more traditional theory based on

7210-473: The height of the French Revolution , Lamarck changed the name of the Royal Garden from Jardin du Roi to Jardin des Plantes , a name that did not imply such a close association with King Louis XVI . Lamarck had worked as the keeper of the herbarium for five years before he was appointed curator and professor of invertebrate zoology at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in 1793. During his time at

7313-407: The herbarium, Lamarck's wife gave birth to three more children before dying on 27 September 1792. With the official title of "Professeur d'Histoire naturelle des Insectes et des Vers", Lamarck received a salary of nearly 2,500 francs per year. The following year, on 9 October, he married Charlotte Reverdy, who was 30 years his junior. On 26 September 1794 Lamarck was appointed to serve as secretary of

7416-501: The highest forms of life, was but the result of natural processes." Lamarck is known largely for his views on evolution, which have been dismissed in favour of developments in Darwinism . His theory of evolution only achieved fame after the publication of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (1859), which spurred critics of Darwin's new theory to fall back on Lamarckian evolution as

7519-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

7622-517: The island of Martinique ( talauma ). It was named after the French botanist Pierre Magnol . The English botanist William Sherard , who studied botany in Paris under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort , a pupil of Magnol , was most probably the first after Plumier to adopt the genus name Magnolia . He was at least responsible for the taxonomic part of Johann Jacob Dillenius 's Hortus Elthamensis and of Mark Catesby 's Natural History of Carolina, Florida and

7725-420: The ladder of progress into new and distinct forms with local adaptations. It could also drive organisms into evolutionary blind alleys, where the organism became so finely adapted that no further change could occur. Lamarck argued that this adaptive force was powered by the interaction of organisms with their environment, by the use and disuse of certain characteristics. The last clause of this law introduces what

7828-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

7931-410: The lieutenancy. Lamarck's company was left exposed to the direct artillery fire of their enemies, and was quickly reduced to just 14 men—with no officers. One of the men suggested that the puny, 17-year-old volunteer should assume command and order a withdrawal from the field; although Lamarck accepted command, he insisted they remain where they had been posted until relieved. When their colonel reached

8034-500: The lifetime of an individual. This has led to calls for biology to reconsider Lamarckian processes in evolution in light of modern advances in molecular biology. In his book Philosophie zoologique , Lamarck referred to God as the "sublime author of nature". Lamarck's religious views are examined in the book Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution (1901) by Alpheus Packard . According to Packard from Lamarck's writings, he may be regarded as

8137-400: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Lamarck Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck ( / l ə ˈ m ɑːr k / ; French: [ʒɑ̃batist lamaʁk] ), was

8240-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

8343-408: The movements of fluids in living organisms naturally drove them to evolve toward ever greater levels of complexity: The rapid motion of fluids will etch canals between delicate tissues. Soon their flow will begin to vary, leading to the emergence of distinct organs. The fluids themselves, now more elaborate, will become more complex, engendering a greater variety of secretions and substances composing

8446-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

8549-404: The ongoing spontaneous generation of simple living organisms through action on physical matter by a material life force. Lamarck ran against the modern chemistry promoted by Lavoisier (whose ideas he regarded with disdain), preferring to embrace a more traditional alchemical view of the elements as influenced primarily by earth, air, fire, and water. He asserted that once living organisms form,

8652-477: The organs. He argued that organisms thus moved from simple to complex in a steady, predictable way based on the fundamental physical principles of alchemy. In this view, simple organisms never disappeared because they were constantly being created by spontaneous generation in what has been described as a "steady-state biology". Lamarck saw spontaneous generation as being ongoing, with the simple organisms thus created being transmuted over time becoming more complex. He

8755-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

8858-487: The remains of their company, this display of courage and loyalty impressed him so much that Lamarck was promoted to officer on the spot. However, when one of his comrades playfully lifted him by the head, he sustained an inflammation in the lymphatic glands of the neck, and he was sent to Paris to receive treatment. He was awarded a commission and settled at his post in Monaco . There, he encountered Traité des plantes usuelles ,

8961-620: The same time, Magnolia kobus was also first collected. With the number of species increasing, the genus was divided into two subgenera, Magnolia and Yulania . Magnolia contains the American evergreen species M. grandiflora , which is of horticultural importance, especially in the southeastern United States , and M. virginiana , the type species. Yulania contains several deciduous Asiatic species, such as M. denudata and M. kobus , which have become horticulturally important in their own right and as parents in hybrids. Classified in Yulania

9064-481: The species names in Michelia and Magnolia subgenus Yulania was undesirable. Taxonomically, three choices are available: Magnolia subgenus Magnolia cannot be renamed because it contains M. virginiana , the type species of the genus and of the family. Not many Michelia species have so far become horticulturally or economically important, apart from their wood. Both subgenus Magnolia and subgenus Yulania include species of major horticultural importance, and

9167-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

9270-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

9373-565: The study of cellular and physiological traits that are heritable by daughter cells and not caused by changes in the DNA sequence, have caused debate about whether a "neolamarckist" view of inheritance could be correct: Lamarck was not in a position to give a molecular explanation for his theory. Eva Jablonka and Marion Lamb , for example, call themselves neolamarckists. Reviewing the evidence, David Haig argued that any such mechanisms must themselves have evolved through natural selection. Darwin allowed

9476-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

9579-617: The tenth edition of Systema Naturae (1759), he merged grisea with glauca and raised the four remaining varieties to species status. By the end of the 18th century, botanists and plant hunters exploring Asia had begun to name and describe the Magnolia species from China and Japan. The first Asiatic species to be described by western botanists were Magnolia denudata , Magnolia liliiflora , Magnolia coco , and Magnolia figo . Soon after that, in 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg collected and described Magnolia obovata from Japan, and roughly at

9682-761: The tepal characteristic with several other flowering plants near the base of the flowering plant lineage, such as Amborella and Nymphaea (as well as with many more recently derived plants, such as Lilium ). The magnolia was made the state flower of Mississippi in 1900. The magnolia symbolizes stability in the United States; in China beauty and gentleness. Overall, the magnolia symbolizes everlasting connections. Magnolias are spreading evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs characterised by large fragrant flowers, which may be bowl-shaped or star-shaped, in shades of white, pink, purple, green, or yellow. In deciduous species,

9785-448: The theory of adaptation or soft inheritance) was rejected by August Weismann in the 1880s when he developed a theory of inheritance in which germ plasm (the sex cells, later redefined as DNA), remained separate and distinct from the soma (the rest of the body); thus, nothing which happens to the soma may be passed on with the germ plasm. This model allegedly underlies the modern understanding of inheritance. Lamarck constructed one of

9888-446: The top French scientists of the day, mentored Lamarck, and helped him gain membership to the French Academy of Sciences in 1779 and a commission as a royal botanist in 1781, in which he traveled to foreign botanical gardens and museums. Lamarck's first son, André, was born on 22 April 1781, and he made his colleague André Thouin the child's godfather. In his two years of travel, Lamarck collected rare plants that were not available in

9991-496: The tuliptree, Liriodendron tulipifera . The Fraser magnolia, M. fraseri , also attains enough size sometimes to be harvested, as well. Magnolias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth . The aromatic bark contains magnolol , honokiol , 4-O-methylhonokiol , and obovatol . Magnolol and honokiol activate the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma . Despite Meeropol's frequent mention of

10094-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

10197-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

10300-476: Was clearly hostile to the materialistic overtones of current transformist theorizing, but it does not necessarily follow that he regarded species origin as supernatural; certainly he was careful to use neutral language to refer to the causes of the origins of new forms of life, and even of man. Lamarck gradually turned blind; he died in Paris on 18 December 1829. When he died, his family was so poor, they had to apply to

10403-566: Was in his teenaged years. Yielding to the wishes of his father, Lamarck enrolled in a Jesuit college in Amiens in the late 1750s. After his father died in 1760, Lamarck bought himself a horse, and rode across the country to join the French army, which was in Germany at the time. Lamarck showed great physical courage on the battlefield in the Seven Years' War with Prussia , and he was even nominated for

10506-435: Was that the environment gives rise to changes in animals. He cited examples of blindness in moles, the presence of teeth in mammals and the absence of teeth in birds as evidence of this principle. The second principle was that life was structured in an orderly manner and that many different parts of all bodies make possible the organic movements of animals. Although he was not the first thinker to advocate organic evolution, he

10609-496: Was the first to develop a truly coherent evolutionary theory. He outlined his theories regarding evolution first in his Floreal lecture of 1800, and then in three later published works: Lamarck employed several mechanisms as drivers of evolution, drawn from the common knowledge of his day and from his own belief in the chemistry before Lavoisier . He used these mechanisms to explain the two forces he saw as constituting evolution: force driving animals from simple to complex forms and

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