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66-451: The Magdalen Chapel (or Magdalene Chapel ) is a 16th-century chapel on Cowgate in the Old Town of Edinburgh , Scotland . It is designated as a Category A listed building . The chapel was built between 1541 and 1544 using money bequeathed by Michael MacQueen or MakQuhen (died 1537), supplemented by his widow, Jonet Rynd or Rhynd. MacQueen was a merchant who supplied spices and linen to

132-433: A parish church . The earliest Christian places of worship are now often referred to as chapels, as they were not dedicated buildings but rather a dedicated chamber within a building. Most larger churches had one or more secondary altars which, if they occupied a distinct space, would often be called a chapel. In Russian Orthodox tradition, the chapels were built underneath city gates, where most people could visit them;

198-416: A church bell at its thickest part (the "sound bow") is usually one thirteenth its diameter. If the bell is mounted as cast, without any tuning, it is called a "maiden bell". Russian bells are treated in this way and cast for a certain tone. The preferred material for the bell clapper was wrought iron but because this is no longer obtainable wood or cast iron clappers are now used. The clapper or tongue

264-434: A coke, stone, or brick core, then the false bell including wax decorations as above, and finally the outer mould with added iron ring and fiber (e.g. hemp) reinforcements. At this stage the steel staple , from which the clapper will hang, is inserted. Separating agents are used to prevent the false bell from sticking too closely to both of the moulds. Finally, after lifting up the outer mould, the false bell can be destroyed and

330-617: A commercial trade followed later. Independent craftsmen set up permanent foundries in towns, such as London, Gloucester, Salisbury, Bury St Edmunds, Norwich, and Colchester. Although these attracted trade from the surrounding countryside, mediaeval founders did not confine themselves to bellmaking as their only source of livelihood. Instead, they often combined it with related trades, such as metal ware, utensil manufacturing and gunmaking. Some founders were itinerant, traveling from church to church to cast bells on site. These early bells had poor tone, due to both their variable alloy composition and

396-576: A famous example is the Iberian Chapel . Although chapels frequently refer to Christian places of worship, they are also found in Jewish synagogues and do not necessarily denote a specific denomination. In England—where the Church of England is established by law— interdenominational or interfaith chapels in such institutions may be consecrated by the local Anglican bishop. Chapels that are not affiliated with

462-434: A furnace until they become liquid at a temperature of approximately 1,100 °C (2,010 °F). Often scrap bronze from old bells is added, especially if the bell being cast is a replacement for an existing bell, which is in effect being recycled. The liquid metal is skimmed to remove impurities, then poured into the mould, using either a tilting ladle suspended from a crane, or else a system of brick channels constructed in

528-406: A harder and more rigid metal is created but also one with more elasticity than the use of one alone. This allows for a better resonance and causes the bell to "vibrate like a spring when struck", a necessary quality as the clapper may strike at speeds of up to 600 miles per hour . The forces holding the tin and copper together cause vibrations rather than cracks when the bell is struck which creates

594-466: A hospital or university chapel). Chapels that are built as part of a larger church are holy areas set aside for some specific use or purpose: for instance, many cathedrals and large churches have a " Lady chapel " in the apse, dedicated to the Virgin Mary ; parish churches may have such a Lady chapel in a side aisle or a "chapel of Reservation" or " Blessed Sacrament chapel" where the consecrated bread of

660-467: A lack of understanding of producing the correct shape for a harmonic tone; but over time the bell-shape was improved. The angles at the crown and soundbow were gradually flattened out and the waist became shorter, flaring more toward the mouth. Although tuning methods were still uncertain and empirical, sets of bells in diatonic scales were installed at important parish churches and monasteries. Whilst most bell founders were men, some women were also part of

726-508: A low melting point and become brittle and susceptible to cracking. This low melting point proved to be the nemesis of Russia's third attempt at casting the Tsar Bell from 1733 to 1735. The bell was never rung, and a huge slab cracked off (11.5 tons) during a fire in the Kremlin in 1737 before it could ever be raised from its casting pit. Burning timber fell into the casting pit, and the decision

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792-594: A major restoration programme in 1992/93. It is now the headquarters of the Scottish Reformation Society. An inscription over the door reads 'He that hath pity upon the poore lendeth unto the Lord and the Lord will recompence him that which he hath given, Pro. XIX vers XVII.' A semi-circular wooden platform was installed at the east end around 1615 and the layout of the Chapel was altered. The carved armorial panel over

858-654: A military or commercial ship. Third, chapels are small places of worship, built as satellite sites by a church or monastery, for example in remote areas; these are often called a chapel of ease . A feature of all these types is that often no clergy were permanently resident or specifically attached to the chapel. For historical reasons, chapel is also often the term used by independent or nonconformist denominations for their places of worship in England and especially in Wales, even where they are large and in practice they operate as

924-581: A new fellowship in the Magdalen Chapel. After being baptized himself in London, Carmichael baptized four men and three women in the Water of Leith at Canonmills on 25 November 1765, an event partially witnessed and reported by The Scots Magazine. The Baptists worshipped here regularly till 1774. A printing press was located either in the Chapel or a nearby building in the 18th century. In the early nineteenth century it

990-406: A particular denomination are commonly encountered as part of a non-religious institution such as a hospital, airport, university or prison. Many military installations have chapels for the use of military personnel, normally under the leadership of a military chaplain . The earliest Christian places of worship were not dedicated buildings but rather a dedicated chamber within a building, such as

1056-446: A peal of seven. The same period saw other ecclesiastics involved in the founding of bells. St. Dunstan , "The Chief of Monks", was an expert worker in metals and known bell caster. Two bells were cast under his direction at Abingdon which also held two others cast by St. Ethelwold . Methods of moulding by lost-wax casting were described by the thirteenth-century Benedictine monk Walter de Odyngton of Evesham Abbey. Bellfounding as

1122-419: A resonant tone. This metal combination also results in a tough, long-wearing material that is resistant to oxidation and subject only to an initial surface weathering . Verdigris forms a protective patina on the surface of the bell which coats it against further oxidation. The hardest and strongest bronze contains large amounts of tin and little lead though an alloy with more than 25 per cent tin will have

1188-490: A room in an individual's home. Here, one or two people could pray without being part of a communion or congregation. People who like to use chapels may find it peaceful and relaxing to be away from the stress of life, without other people moving around them. The word chapel , like the associated word chaplain , is ultimately derived from Latin . More specifically, the word is derived from a relic of Saint Martin of Tours : traditional stories about Martin relate that while he

1254-574: Is a Christian place of prayer and worship that is usually relatively small. The term has several meanings. First, smaller spaces inside a church that have their own altar are often called chapels; the Lady chapel is a common type of these. Second, a chapel is a place of worship, sometimes interfaith , that is part of a building, complex, or vessel with some other main purpose, such as a school, college, hospital, palace or large aristocratic house, castle, barracks , prison , funeral home , hotel, airport, or

1320-402: Is made to arrive at an average pitch for the scale, as this is dependent on casting tolerances. Because of this compromise large bells are therefore not always tuned to concert pitch . Much experimentation and testing was devoted over the centuries to determining the exact shape that would result in the best tone. In the early days of bellfounding, bells were profiled using empirical methods and

1386-400: Is manufactured in a similar process as the bell. Special care is given to cast the clapper at the proper weight, as a clapper that is too light will not bring out the true tones of the bell and a heavy clapper might cause the bell to crack. Holes are drilled into the top of the bell, and the clapper is attached to the inside of the bell either by a metal link or a leather strap. Finally the bell

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1452-410: Is not hot enough. The casting is allowed to cool for up to several days and large bells can take over a week to cool. Small bells, those under 500 pounds (230 kg), can be removed from the moulds the following day. After the bell and equipment have cooled, the mould, containing the newly cast bell, is raised from the pit by the projecting trunnions of the bell case. The core plate is unclamped and

1518-689: Is on display on the south wall. The panelling records gifts from members of the Incorporation of Hammermen. The stained glass in the middle window of the south wall features the Royal Arms of Scotland and the Arms of Mary of Guise. It is the only intact pre- Reformation stained glass window in Scotland. A sword that reputedly belonged to the Covenanter Captain John Paton and the table used to prepare

1584-414: Is then covered with molten wax and figures and inscriptions , also made of wax, applied on top by hand. The false bell is painted over with three coats of fireproof clay and then enclosed by a steel mantle overcasing. The empty space between the false bell and the mantle is filled in with cement and left to harden before the mantle is lifted off. The false bell is chipped away from the inner core to leave

1650-708: The Eucharist is kept in reserve between services, for the purpose of taking Holy Communion to the sick and housebound and, in some Christian traditions, for devotional purposes. Common uses of the word chapel today include: The first airport chapel was created in 1951 in Boston for airport workers but grew to include travelers. It was originally Catholic, but chapels today are often multifaith. Bell founder Bellfounding in East Asia dates from about 2000 BCE and in Europe from

1716-476: The 4th or 5th century CE. In Britain, archaeological excavations have revealed traces of furnaces , showing that bells were often cast on site in pits in a church or its grounds. Centralised foundries became common when railways allowed easy transportation of bells, leading to the dominance of founders such as the Whitechapel Bell Foundry and John Taylor & Co of Loughborough. Elsewhere in

1782-713: The Chapel, speaking in Latin because he had been out of Scotland for so many years. Several conventicles of the Covenanters were held in the Chapel, the largest being that of 17 May 1674 at which William Weir was the preacher. The bodies of the Marquis of Argyle in 1661, Hew Mackail in 1666, and John Dick in 1684 were prepared for burial in the chapel after they were executed. The heads and hands of martyred Covenanters were displayed in various locations in Edinburgh in 1689, and were collected at

1848-573: The art, such as Johanna Hill who took over her husband's business, and then left it to her daughter. Archaeological excavations of churchyards in Britain have revealed furnaces , which suggests that bells were often cast on site in pits dug in the building grounds. Great Tom of Lincoln Cathedral was cast in the Minster yard in 1610, and the great bell of Canterbury in the Cathedral yard in 1762. When

1914-483: The bells of Henry II had nearly twice as much copper as tin , while much earlier Assyrian bronze bells had ten times the amount of copper to tin. The recognized best composition for bell metal though is a ratio of approximately 80 per cent copper and 20 per cent tin. Bell metal of these ratios has been used for more than 3,000 years and is known for its resonance and "attractive sound". Tin and copper are relatively soft metals that will deform on striking. By alloying,

1980-478: The bodies of the Covenanters for burial (after their execution in the nearby Grassmarket ) are still present in the chapel. Janet Rynd's tomb, with her coat of arms and an inscribed border, is in the south east of the church. Stained glass in the main south window dates from 1893 and is by William Graham Boss . Chapel A chapel (from Latin : cappella , a diminutive of cappa , meaning "little cape")

2046-555: The cape was called the capella and the priests who said daily Mass in the tent were known as the capellani . From these words, via Old French , we get the names "chapel" and "chaplain". The word also appears in the Irish language (Gaelic) in the Middle Ages , as Welsh people came with the Norman and Old English invaders to the island of Ireland. While the traditional Irish word for church

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2112-510: The carillon, in collaboration with Jacob van Eyck, into a full-fledged musical instrument by casting the first tuned carillon in 1644. The Hemony Brothers are regarded as the first of the modern western bell-founders who used a scientific approach to casting the optimum shape and tuning bells to harmonic principles. Bells for the intention of producing functional sound are usually made by casting bell metal, an alloy of bronze . Much experimentation with composition has existed throughout history;

2178-399: The casting pit, which allows the metal to flow directly from the furnace into the individual moulds. As the metal enters the mould, holes in the top of the mantle ensure that gases are able to escape, otherwise there would be a risk the bell would be porous and susceptible to cracking. Porosity can also develop if the mould is damp, or is not at the proper temperature, or the metal when poured

2244-525: The casting was complete, a tower was built over the casting pit, and the bell raised directly up into the tower. In some instances, such as in Kirkby Malzeard and Haddenham the bells were actually cast in the church. François Hemony (c. 1609–1667) and his brother Pieter, Pierre, or Peter Hemony (1619–1680) were the greatest carillon bell founders in the history of the Low Countries . They developed

2310-452: The celebration of services, particularly the Mass, which is not a parish church. This may be a private chapel, for the use of one person or a select group (a bishop's private chapel, or the chapel of a convent, for instance); a semi-public oratory, which is partially available to the general public (a seminary chapel that welcomes visitors to services, for instance); or a public oratory (for instance,

2376-569: The chapel passed to the Incorporation of Hammermen (metalworkers) on the death of Janet Rhynd in 1553. After the Reformation, the patrons – the Hammermen – met financial trouble. The chaplain, who remained a Roman Catholic , was replaced by a Protestant minister, but successfully sued to continue to receive his salary until his death in 1567. Under the terms of the Foundation Charter, the Chapel

2442-603: The chapel prior to burial in Greyfriars Kirk . The Chapel was used by Episcopalians , and notably housed the second Baptist congregation in Edinburgh in the 18th century. This Baptist church originated in 1765 when Robert Carmichael, a minister from an Old Scots Independent congregation in Candlemakers’ Hall, became convinced that baptism should be for believers only and by immersion. In May 1765, Carmichael and seven others withdrew from their Independent church and formed

2508-454: The core broken out. The bell is then carefully extracted from the case. At this stage, any remaining loam adhered to the bell is brushed away and flash (excess metal), which may have formed below the bell's rim—owing to mould contraction in the presence of hot metal—is trimmed off. This completes the casting process. Bells are cast with defined profiles which were perfected in the early 20th century to ensure they can be harmonically tuned by

2574-447: The door was created by John Sawer in the same year, and was moved to its current location in 1649. The tower and spire were added about 1620. A bell, by the Dutch bell founder Michael Burgerhuys of Middelburg , dates from 1632. The original ceiling, no longer extant, was painted in 1725 by Alexander Boswall in 'skye colour with clouds and a sin ( sic : sun) gilded in the centre'. ' A fragment

2640-761: The earliest bells, made many centuries before the European Iron Age . The earliest bells were made of pottery, developing later into the casting of metal bells. Archaeological evidence of bellfounding appears in Neolithic China. The earliest metal bells, with one found in the Taosi site, and four in the Erlitou site, are dated to about 2000 BCE. By the 13th century BCE, bells weighing over 150 kilograms (330 lb) were being cast in China. After 1000 CE, iron became

2706-469: The furnace when bells were cast in the churchyard. The practice was believed to improve the tone of the bell. This however is probably erroneous as there are no authentic analyses of bell metal, ancient or modern, which show that gold or silver has ever been used as a component part of the alloy. If used to any great extent, the addition would injure the tone not improve it. Small quantities of other metals found in old bell metal are likely to be impurities in

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2772-400: The inner face of the bell is built on a base-plate using porous materials such as coke , stone , or brick . It is then covered first with sand or loam ( sometimes mixed with straw and horse manure ) and clay to form a smooth profile. This is given a profile by means of the inner strickle board. It also known as the "false bell" and is then dried with gentle heat in a kiln. The false bell

2838-441: The inside of the bell or edge of the lip was chipped away to adjust the tuning after being cast. With the invention of modern metalworking machinery, this was more accurately done using a vertical tuning lathe, which could remove metal at any position up the waist of the bell, thus allowing tuning of different harmonics, and the reliable introduction of harmonic tuning into the manufacturing process. Metal can only be removed during

2904-406: The metals used to form the alloy. Decorative bells can be made of such materials as horn, wood, and clay. The principle of casting bells has remained essentially the same since the 12th century. Bells are cast mouth down, in a two-part mould consisting of the core and a mantle or cope placed over it. These are produced to accurate profiles so an air space exists between them which is filled by

2970-480: The molten metal. Firstly the bell profile is calculated to exact specifications to ensure it can be properly tuned. Two wooden templates called "strickle boards" are used to shape the moulding clay. One matches the dimensions of the outer bell (called the case or cope); the other matches that of the inner bell (called the core). Generally these boards are stock profiles that have been developed, empirically and by calculation, for each size of bell. An exact model of

3036-560: The most commonly used metal for bells instead of bronze. The earliest dated iron bell was manufactured in 1079 , found in Hubei Province . Portable bells came to Britain with the spread of Celtic Christianity , and most of those still remaining share an association with Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Bellfounding in Britain was due to monasticism which provided demand and expertise in the early medieval period. Large bells in England are mentioned by Bede as early as 670 CE and by

3102-463: The new bell. This practice was fairly commonplace, as the metal materials were very costly. Bell metal was considered so valuable that the first bronze coins for England were made in France out of melted-down old bells. Other materials occasionally used for bell casting are brass or iron . Steel was tried during the busy church-building period of mid-nineteenth England, for its economy over bronze, but

3168-474: The northern industrial towns of the late 18th and 19th centuries, and centres of population close to but outside the City of London . As a result, "chapel" is sometimes used as an adjective in England and Wales to describe members of such churches: for example in the sentence, "I'm Chapel." While the word chapel is not exclusively limited to Christian terminology, it is most often found in that context. Nonetheless,

3234-473: The outer mould lowered back down onto the inner mould, ready for casting. The outer bell mould in the cope or mantle is lowered over the inner mould and they are clamped together, leaving a space between them, which the molten metal will fill. The complete mould is sometimes in a casting pit which stabilises it and enables slower cooling, or above ground in open air, depending on the foundry's traditions. The raw materials of copper and tin are melted in

3300-669: The regular meeting place of the Convenery of the Trades of Edinburgh. The meeting-place was so closely identified with the Convenery of Trades that ‘Magdalen Chapel’ was often used as a metonym for the Convenery itself. The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland was held in the Chapel in April 1578. There is a tradition that the first General Assembly in December 1560 was also held in the Chapel. The Dominican friar turned Reformer John Craig preached in

3366-415: The removal of small amounts of metal to adjust their harmonics. For a carillion or an English ring of full circle bells, the strike note of each bell must accord with the diatonic scale of the others, and to produce that the harmonics of each bell must be tuned to harmonise with its strike note. As a bell's strike note is affected slightly by its harmonics this can be an iterative process. An initial assessment

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3432-476: The rise in Nonconformist chapels during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, by the time of the 1851 census , more people attended the independent chapels than attended the state religion's Anglican churches. (The Anglican Church does not function as the established church in Scotland.) In Roman Catholic Church canon law, a chapel, technically called an " oratory ", is a building or part thereof dedicated to

3498-456: The royal household . The Foundation Charter of 1547 reads: "when the said Michael was greatly troubled with an heavy Disease, and oppressed with Age, yet mindful of Eternal Life, he esteemed it ane good Way to obtain Eternal Life, to erect some Christian Work, for ever to remain and endure". It was designed to accommodate a chaplain and act as an almshouse for seven poor men who were to pray for

3564-564: The seventh or eighth century the use of bells had become incorporated into church services. Nearly 200 years later, in the tenth century is the first record of a complete peal of bells . The chronologies of the abbot Ingulf suggest that Thurcytel , the first Abbot of Crowland , presented the Abbey with a bell named Guthlac, after which his successor, Egelric the Elder cast an additional six bells—two large, two of medium size and two small—to complete

3630-524: The soul of Mary, Queen of Scots . Prior to the Reformation , the Queen Regent, Mary of Guise arranged academic lectures there. Jonet Rynd died in December 1553 and was buried in the chapel. Michael MacQueen seems to have had a son Patrick by his first marriage. Another early donor was Isobel Mauchan who gave £1000 Scots in 1555. Isobel was probably a close friend or relation of Jonet Rynd. Patronage of

3696-408: The tuning process; it cannot be added. Therefore, a bell is cast with slightly thicker profile than is needed for harmonic tuning. To tune the bell, it is placed on a vertical tuning lathe and metal removed by a cutting tool as it rotates. The bell tuner must be highly skilled and formerly used tuning forks to establish the tuning; this is now done electronically, but still requires great manual skill in

3762-438: The use of the cutting tool. Only by this means can bells be harmonically tuned. The bell's strongest harmonics are tuned to be at octave intervals below the nominal note, but other notes also need to be brought into their proper relationship. In general, the smaller the bell the higher the pitch , with the frequency of a bell's note varying with the square of its thickness and inversely with its diameter. The thickness of

3828-406: The wax and cement. Any leftover scraps of the false bell are removed with a blow torch. The mould is then set over a coke fire to melt the remaining wax and evaporate any water that has accumulated. Instead of using a steel mantle and cement, the inner and outer moulds can also be made completely out of loam. In that case, the moulds are usually constructed inside out—first the inner mould on top of

3894-739: The word's meaning can vary by denomination, and non-denominational chapels (sometimes called "meditation rooms") can be found in many hospitals, airports, and even the United Nations headquarters . Chapels can also be found for worship in Judaism . "Chapel" is in particularly common usage in the United Kingdom , and especially in Wales , for Nonconformist places of worship; and in Scotland and Ireland for Roman Catholic churches. In England and Wales, due to

3960-421: The world a number of foundries are still active, some using traditional methods, and some using the latest foundry techniques. Modern foundries produce harmonically tuned bells using principles established in the late 19th century; some of these are also highly decorative. Bellfounding has been important throughout the history of ancient civilizations. Eastern bells, known for their tremendous size, were some of

4026-427: Was eaglais (derived from ecclesia ), a new word, séipéal (from cappella ), came into usage. In British history, "chapel" or " meeting house " were formerly the standard designations for church buildings belonging to independent or Nonconformist religious societies and their members. They were particularly associated with the pre-eminence of independent religious practice in rural parts of England and Wales,

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4092-418: Was found not to be durable and manufacture ceased in the 1870s. They have also been made of glass, but although bells of this type produced a successful tone, this substance being very brittle was unable to withstand the continued use of the clapper. By popular tradition the bell metal contained gold and silver , as component parts of the alloy, as it is recorded that rich and devout people threw coins into

4158-406: Was required to undertake Roman Catholic worship and the Hammermen were prohibited from doing anything against Roman Catholic interests or the property would revert to Janet Rynd's heirs. Since these terms were now breached, the tenants stopped paying their rent, knowing the Hammermen could not force them to pay. Only the wealth of the Hammermen allowed them to continue as patrons. From 1596 it was also

4224-506: Was still a soldier, he cut his military cloak in half to give part to a beggar in need. The other half he wore over his shoulders as a "small cape" ( Latin : cappella ). The beggar, the stories claim, was Christ in disguise, and Martin experienced a conversion of heart, becoming first a monk, then abbot, then bishop. This cape came into the possession of the Frankish kings, and they kept the relic with them as they did battle. The tent which kept

4290-618: Was used as a place of worship by the Bereans, a Protestant sect following former Scottish Presbyterian minister John Barclay (1734-1798) who held to a modified form of Calvinism . The Hammermen sold the chapel in 1857 to the Protestant Institute for Scotland, and it was used by the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society. Following a fund-raising campaign supported by Alex Neish, Architects Simpson and Brown undertook

4356-400: Was whether to let it burn and risk melting the bell or pour water on it and risk causing it cracking from cooling it too quickly. The latter risk was chosen and, as feared, because of uneven cooling, the bell was damaged. The present bell is sometimes referred to as Kolokol III (Bell III), because it is the third recasting; remnants from the old bell were melted down and the metal reused to cast

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