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128-623: It affects the northeast of the plain of Languedoc and Provence to the east of Toulon , where it is felt as a strong west wind. It has a major influence all along the Mediterranean coast of France, and often causes sudden storms in the Mediterranean between Corsica and the Balearic Islands . The name mistral comes from the Languedoc dialect of the Occitan and means "masterly". The same wind

256-594: A dux . During this time, Christianity took deeper root on the island, supplanting the Paganism which had survived into the early Middle Ages in the culturally conservative hinterlands. Along with lay Christianity, the followers of monastic figures such as Basil of Caesarea became established in Sardinia. While Christianity penetrated the majority of the population, the region of Barbagia remained largely pagan and, probably, partially non-Latin speaking. They re-established

384-549: A combination of 43 different isobioclimates. During the year there is a major concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring and snowfalls in the highlands. The average temperature is between 11 and 18 °C (52 and 64 °F), with mild winters and warm summers on the coasts (9 to 16 °C (48 to 61 °F) in January, 23 to 31 °C (73 to 88 °F) in July), and cold winters and cool summers on

512-565: A kind of round tower-fortress called nuraghe (usually pluralized as nuraghes in English and as nuraghi in Italian). These towers were often reinforced and enlarged with battlements. Tribal boundaries were guarded by smaller lookout Nuraghes erected on strategic hills commanding a view of other territories. Today, some 7,000 Nuraghes dot the Sardinian landscape. While initially these Nuraghes had

640-470: A large campus devoted to cancer research and bio-tech R&D will be opened on the site. Elsewhere in the region industries are small and in decline, in particular around the formerly mining areas of Alès and Carmaux in the interior of the region. Services are the largest sector of the economy in the region. In particular, government services employ a significant part of the workforce, especially in small towns. Key administrations have been relocated to

768-506: A local noble family, the Lacon-Gunale , acceded to the power of Archon , still identifying themselves as vassals of the Byzantines, but de facto independent as communications with Constantinople were very difficult. Only two names of those rulers are known: Salusios ( Σαλούσιος ) and the protospatharios Turcoturios ( Tουρκοτούριος ) from two inscriptions), who probably reigned between

896-480: A lot, from apartments in beach resorts such as Cap D'Agde to isolated bastides in the rural interior. Sardinia Sardinia ( / s ɑːr ˈ d ɪ n i ə / sar- DIN -ee-ə ; Italian : Sardegna [sarˈdeɲɲa] ; Sardinian : Sardigna [saɾˈdiɲːa] ) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea , after Sicily , and one of the twenty regions of Italy . It

1024-571: A relatively simple structure, with time they became extremely complex and monumental (see for example the Nuraghe Santu Antine , Su Nuraxi , or Nuraghe Arrubiu ). The scale, complexity and territorial spread of these buildings attest to the level of wealth accumulated by the Nuragic Sardinians, their advances in technology and the complexity of their society, which was able to coordinate large numbers of people with different roles for

1152-904: A second time and came under Carthaginian rule. In 238 BC, taking advantage of Carthage having to face a rebellion of her mercenaries (the Mercenary War ) after the First Punic War (264–241 BC), the Romans annexed Corsica and Sardinia from the Carthaginians. The two islands became the province of Corsica and Sardinia . They were not given a provincial governor until 227 BC. The Romans faced many rebellions, and it took them many years to pacify both islands. The existing coastal cities were enlarged and embellished, and Roman colonies such as Turris Lybissonis and Feronia were founded. These were populated by Roman immigrants. The Roman military occupation brought

1280-615: A short-lived independent domain with Sardinian-heathen lay and religious traditions, one of its kings being Hospito . Pope Gregory I wrote a letter to Hospito defining him "Dux Barbaricinorum" and, being Christian, the leader and best of his people. In this unique letter about Hospito, the Pope prompts him to convert his people who "living all like irrational animals, ignore the true God and worship wood and stone" ( Barbaricini omnes, ut insensata animalia vivant, Deum verum nesciant, ligna autem et lapides adorent ). The dates and circumstances of

1408-662: A source of fish and shellfish. Aerospace ( Airbus , CNES , etc.), electronics ( Freescale , etc.), and bio-tech industries in Toulouse ; high-tech, electronics, and computer ( IBM ) industries in Montpellier ; pharmaceutical industry ( Pierre Fabre Group ) in Castres . There is also a significant chemical sector in Toulouse , which has been quite battered since the terrible explosion of AZF on 21 September 2001. It has been decided that chemical industries would be moved out of Toulouse , and

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1536-667: Is Lago di Baratz . A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the coast. The climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation . It can be classified in two different macrobioclimates (Mediterranean pluviseasonal oceanic and Temperate oceanic), one macrobioclimatic variant (Submediterranean), and four classes of continentality (from weak semihyperoceanic to weak semicontinental), eight thermotypic horizons (from lower thermomediterranean to upper supratemperate), and seven ombrotypic horizons (from lower dry to lower hyperhumid), resulting in

1664-535: Is 1,849 km (1,149 mi) long. It is generally high and rocky, with long, relatively straight stretches, outstanding headlands, wide, deep bays, rias , and inlets with various smaller islands. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone. Its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era . The Cambrian - Lower Ordovician succession of Sardinia reaches 1500–3000 m in thickness. Due to long erosion processes,

1792-599: Is a former province of France . Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France . Its capital city was Toulouse . It had an area of approximately 42,700 square kilometers (16,500 square miles). The Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis fell to the Visigothic Kingdom from the 5th to the 8th centuries . Occupied briefly by the Emirate of Córdoba between 719 and 759, it

1920-458: Is a significant producer of wine. Today it produces more than a third of the grapes in France, and is a focus for outside investors. Wines from the Mediterranean coast of Languedoc are labeled as Languedoc, those from the interior have other labels such as Fronton , Gaillac , or Limoux to the west – and Côtes du Rhône towards the east. Other crops include wheat (the traditional crop which made

2048-466: Is already dry because of the small amount of rainfall, is made even drier by the wind, which makes it particularly susceptible to fires, which the wind spreads very rapidly, sometimes devastating vast expanses of mountainside before being extinguished. During the summer, thousands of hectares can burn when the mistral is blowing. In the Rhône Valley and on the plain of la Crau, the regularity and force of

2176-500: Is also strong, as the region contains the historic cities of Carcassonne , Toulouse, Montpellier , countless Roman monuments (such as the Roman arenas in Nîmes ), medieval abbeys, Romanesque churches, and old castles (such as the ruined Cathar castles in the mountains of Corbières , testimony of the bloody Albigensian Crusade ). More recently, "green" and sports tourism is on the rise, with

2304-473: Is always marked as such. However, the intricate entanglement of administrations and jurisdictions permitted Montpellier to also claim that distinction. In the 18th century, the monarchy clearly favored Montpellier, a city much smaller than Toulouse, with less history, and with fewer autonomous local authorities such as Toulouse's parlement and capitoulate . The governors of Languedoc resided in Pézenas , near to

2432-683: Is called mistrau in the Provençal variant of Occitan, mestral in Catalan , maestrale in Italian and Corsican , maistràle or bentu maestru in Sardinian , and majjistral in Maltese . The mistral is usually accompanied by clear, fresh weather, and it plays an important role in creating the climate of Provence. It can reach speeds of more than 90 km/h (56 mph; 25 m/s; 49 kn), particularly in

2560-423: Is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city . The capital of the region of Sardinia — and its largest city — is Cagliari . Sardinia's indigenous language and Algherese Catalan are referred to by both the regional and national law as two of Italy's twelve officially recognized linguistic minorities , albeit gravely endangered , while the regional law provides some measures to recognize and protect

2688-522: Is located west of the Italian Peninsula , north of Tunisia and 16.45 km south of the French island of Corsica . It is one of the five Italian regions with some degree of domestic autonomy being granted by a special statute . Its official name, Autonomous Region of Sardinia , is bilingual in Italian and Sardinian : Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna . It

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2816-641: Is not uniform; in particular the East is drier, but paradoxically it suffers the worst rainstorms: in autumn 2009, it rained more than 200 mm (7.9 in) in a single day in Siniscola, and 19 November 2013, locations in Sardinia were reported to have received more than 431 mm (17.0 in) within two hours. The western coast has a higher distribution of rainfalls even for modest elevations (for instance Iglesias, elevation 200 m (656 ft), average annual precipitation 815 mm (32.1 in)). The driest part of

2944-587: Is situated between 38° 51' and 41° 18' latitude north (respectively Isola del Toro and Isola La Presa) and 8° 8' and 9° 50' east longitude (respectively Capo dell' Argentiera and Capo Comino). To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia , a unit of the Mediterranean Sea; to Sardinia's east is the Tyrrhenian Sea , which is also an element of the Mediterranean Sea. The nearest land masses are (clockwise from north)

3072-409: The département of Aveyron ), both to the northwest of Languedoc. At some times it included the province of Agenais (now the eastern half of the département of Lot-et-Garonne ) to the west of Languedoc, the province of Gévaudan (now département of Lozère ), the province of Velay (now the central and eastern part of the département of Haute-Loire ), the southern part of

3200-515: The praeses and apparently continued to manage military, judicial, and civil governmental functions via imperial procedures. The only Vandal governor of Sardinia about whom there is substantial record is the last, Godas , a Visigoth noble. In AD 530, a coup d'état in Carthage removed King Hilderic , a convert to Nicene Christianity , in favor of his cousin Gelimer , an Arian Christian like most of

3328-590: The Bay of Biscay , and an area of low pressure around the Gulf of Genoa . When this happens, the flow of air between the high and low pressure areas draws in a current of cold air from the north which accelerates through the lower elevations between the foothills of the Alps and the Cevennes . The conditions for a mistral are even more favorable when a cold rainy front has crossed France from

3456-556: The Crown of the Realm . Each Judicate saw to its own defense, maintained its own laws and administration, and looked after its own foreign and trading affairs. The history of the four Judicates would be defined by the contest for influence between the two Italian maritime powers of Genoa and Pisa , and later the ambitions of the Kingdom of Aragon . The Judicate of Cagliari or Pluminos , during

3584-644: The Early Middle Ages , the island was ruled by the Vandals and the Byzantines . In practice, the island was disconnected from Byzantium's territorial influence, which allowed the Sardinians to provide themselves with a self-ruling political organization, the four kingdoms known as Judicates . The Italian maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa struggled to impose political control over these indigenous kingdoms, but it

3712-590: The French Revolution in 1789. From the 17th century onward, there was only one intendance for the whole of Languedoc, with its seat in Montpellier. Part of the territory where Occitan was spoken came to be called langue d'oc , Lengadòc or Languedoc. The traditional provinces of the kingdom of France were not formally defined. A province was simply a territory of common traditions and customs, but it had no political organization. Today, when people refer to

3840-748: The Languedoc-Roussillon région , 35% in the Midi-Pyrénées région , 8% in the Rhône-Alpes région , and 5% in the Auvergne région . The territory of the former province shows a stark contrast between some densely populated areas (coastal plains as well as metropolitan area of Toulouse in the interior) where density is between 150 inhabitants per square kilometre (390 inhabitants/sq mi) (coastal plains) and 300 inhabitants per square kilometre (780 inhabitants/sq mi) (plain of Toulouse), and

3968-640: The Loire . As part of this process, the former principalities of Trencavel (the Viscounty of Albi , Carcassona , Besièrs , Agde and Nîmes ) were integrated into the Royal French Domain in 1224. The County of Toulouse followed them in 1271. The remaining feudal enclaves were absorbed progressively up to the beginning of the 16th century; the County of Gévaudan in 1258, the County of Melgueil ( Mauguiò ) in 1293,

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4096-659: The Lordship of Montpellier in 1349 and the Viscounty of Narbonne in 1507. The territory falling within the jurisdiction of the Estates of Languedoc , which convened for the first time in 1346, shrank progressively, becoming known during the Ancien Régime as the province of Languedoc . The year 1359 marked a turning point in the history of the province. The three bailiwicks ( sénéchaussées ) of Bèucaire , Carcassona and Tolosa had

4224-652: The Talaiotic culture of the Balearic Islands and the Torrean civilization of Southern Corsica . Evidence of trade with the other civilizations of the time is attested by several artefacts (e.g. pots), coming from as far as Cyprus , Crete , Mainland Greece , Spain and Italy, that have been found in Nuragic sites, bearing witness to the scope of commercial relations between the Nuragic people and other peoples in Europe and beyond. Around

4352-425: The gouvernement of Guienne and its far-away capital Bordeaux . This decision was probably intentional, to avoid reviving the independently spirited County of Toulouse. In the rest of this article, Languedoc refers to the territory of this gouvernement of Languedoc. The province of Languedoc covered an area of approximately 42,700 km (16,500 sq mi) in the central part of southern France, roughly

4480-494: The metallurgy of copper and silver began to develop. During the late Chalcolithic the so-called Beaker culture , coming from various parts of Continental Europe , appeared in Sardinia. These new people predominantly settled on the west coast, where the majority of the sites attributed to them had been found. The Beaker culture was followed in the early Bronze Age by the Bonnanaro culture which showed both reminiscences of

4608-474: The 10th and the 11th century. These rulers were still closely linked to the Byzantines, both for a pact of ancient vassalage, and from the ideological point of view, with the use of the Byzantine Greek language (in a Romance country), and the use of art of Byzantine inspiration. In the early 11th century, an attempt to conquer the island was made by Mujahid al-Amiri al-Ṣaqlabī was the ruler of Dénia and

4736-464: The 10th century, the so-called "Judges" ( Sardinian : judikes / Latin : iudices , a Byzantine administrative title) had emerged as the autonomous rulers of Sardinia. The title of iudice changed with the language and local understanding of the position, becoming the Sardinian judike , essentially a king or sovereign, while Judicate ( Sardinian : logu ) came to mean 'state'. Early medieval Sardinian political institutions evolved from

4864-508: The 18th century BC to either 238 BC or the 2nd century AD in some parts of the island, and to the 6th century AD in that part of the island known as Barbagia . After a period in which the island was ruled by a political and economic alliance between the Nuragic Sardinians and the Phoenicians , parts of it were conquered by Carthage in the late 6th century BC, and by Rome in 238 BC. The Roman occupation lasted for 700 years. Beginning in

4992-427: The 18th century they were relocated definitively to Montpellier , where they met once a year, until 1789. For Christian religious purposes, Languedoc was also divided into a certain number of ecclesiastical provinces, including the archdiocese of Toulouse , the archdiocese of Narbonne , and the archdiocese of Albi . Between 1956 and 2016, the province of Languedoc was divided between four régions : In 2016,

5120-520: The 9th century BC the Phoenicians began visiting Sardinia with increasing frequency, presumably initially needing safe overnight and all-weather anchorages along their trade routes from the coast of modern-day Lebanon as far afield as the African and European Atlantic coasts and beyond. The most common ports of call were Caralis , Nora , Bithia , Sulci , and Tharros . Claudian , a 4th-century Latin poet, in his poem De bello Gildonico , stated that Caralis

5248-524: The Atlantic and atmospheric disturbances over France, the air is even colder at both high altitudes and ground level, and the mistral is even stronger, and the weather worse, with the creation of cumulus clouds bringing weak storms. This kind of mistral is weaker in the east of Provence and the Côte d'Azur. The mistral is not always synonymous with clear skies. When a low pressure front over the Mediterranean approaches

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5376-607: The Balearic Islands based in the Iberian Peninsula . The only records of that war are from Pisan and Genoese chronicles. The Christians won but, after that, the previous Sardinian kingdom was undermined and subsequently divided into four smaller states: Cagliari ( Calari ), Arborea ( Arbaree ), Gallura, and Torres or Logudoro. Whether this final transformation from imperial civil servant to independent sovereign bodies resulted from imperial abandonment or local assertion, by

5504-530: The Beaker and influences by the Polada culture . As time passed the different Sardinian populations appear to have become united in customs, yet remained politically divided into various small, tribal groupings, at times banding together against invading forces from the sea, and at others waging war against each other. Habitations consisted of round thatched stone huts. From about 1500 BC onwards, villages were built around

5632-434: The French regions were reduced in number, with Languedoc-Rousillon and Midi-Pyrénées merging to form Occitanie , containing over 80% of historic Languedoc , and Auvergne and Rhône-Alpes merging to Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes , with just under a fifth of the historic région . On the traditional territory of the province of Languedoc there live approximately 3,650,000 people (as of 1999 census), 52% of these in

5760-490: The Languedoc is quite varied and ranges from newly built villas with swimming pools and tennis courts, to old village houses set into the old ramparts of ancient fortified towns. Some of these village houses date back a very long time. A small house in the village of Magalas, Hérault département , has a date of the 13th century carved into its stonework. Being a large area, the type of property available in Languedoc varies

5888-408: The Mediterranean coast, away from Toulouse but close to Montpellier . In time they had increased their power well beyond military matters, and had become the real administrators and executive power of the province, a trend seen in the other gouvernements of France, but particularly acute in Languedoc, where the duke of Montmorency , governor of Languedoc, even openly rebelled against the king, then

6016-459: The Mediterranean, particularly when low-pressure areas form in the Gulf of Genoa . The winds create a physically cold, salty ocean body that sinks in the Gulf of Lion when certain weather conditions are present. Similar names— maestral or maestro —are used for (although also mostly northwestern) a quite different wind in the Adriatic Sea . It is an anabatic sea-breeze wind which blows in

6144-417: The Mediterranean, while it can rain in the interior. The Côte d'Azur generally has a clear sky and warmer temperatures. This type of mistral usually blows for no more than one to three days. The mistral originating from the northeast has a very different character; it is felt only in the west of Provence and as far as Montpellier, with the wind coming from either a northerly or north-northeasterly direction. In

6272-554: The Mesolithic hunter-gatherer populations, with a material culture including the widespread Cardium pottery style. In the mid-Neolithic period, the Ozieri culture , probably of Aegean origin , flourished on the island spreading the hypogeum tombs known as domus de Janas , while the Arzachena culture of Gallura built the first megaliths : circular tombs. In the early 3rd millennium BC,

6400-452: The Nuragic civilization to an end, except for the mountainous interior of the island, which the Romans called Barbaria , meaning ' Barbarian land'. Roman rule in Sardinia lasted 694 years, during which time the province was an important source of grain for the capital. Latin came to be the dominant spoken language during this period, though Roman culture was slower to take hold, and Roman rule

6528-499: The Rhône Valley, and the Venturi effect of funnelling the air through a narrowing space, is frequently cited as the reason for the speed and force of the mistral, but the reasons are apparently more complex. The mistral reaches its maximum speed not at the narrowest part of the Rhône Valley, south of Valence, but much farther south, where the Valley has widened. Also, the wind occurs not just in

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6656-430: The Rhône Valley. Its average speed during the day can reach about 50 km/h (31 mph; 14 m/s; 27 kn), calming noticeably at night. The mistral usually blows in winter or spring, though it occurs in all seasons. It sometimes lasts only one or two days, frequently lasts several days, and sometimes lasts more than a week. The mistral takes place each time there is an anticyclone , or area of high pressure, in

6784-519: The South of France. The mistral has the reputation of bringing good health, since the dry air dries stagnant water and the mud, giving the mistral the local name mange-fange (Eng. "mud-eater"). It also blows away pollution from the skies over the large cities and industrial areas. The sunshine and dryness brought by the mistral have an important effect on the local vegetation. The vegetation in Provence, which

6912-409: The Valley, but high above in the atmosphere, up to the troposphere, 3 km (1.9 mi) above the earth. The mistral is very strong at the summit of Mont Ventoux , 1900 meters (6300') in elevation, though the plain below is very wide. Other contributing factors to the strength of the mistral are the accumulation of masses of cold air, whose volume is greater, pouring down the mountains and valleys to

7040-681: The Vandal Kingdom was overwhelmed when Justinian's own army under Belisarius arrived at Carthage in their absence. The Vandal Kingdom ended and Sardinia was returned to Roman rule. In 533, Sardinia returned to the rule of the Byzantine Empire when the Vandals were defeated by the armies of Justinian I under the General Belisarius in the Battle of Tricamarum , in their African kingdom Belisarius sent his general Cyril to Sardinia to retake

7168-441: The adjective " sardonic ". In classical antiquity , Sardinia was called a number of names besides Sardṓ ( Σαρδώ ) or Sardinia , like Ichnusa (the Latinised form of the Greek Ἰχνοῦσσα ), Sandaliotis ( Σανδαλιῶτις ) and Argyrophleps ( Αργυρόφλεψ ). Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily and before Cyprus ), with an area of 24,100 km (9,305 sq mi). It

7296-414: The aforementioned as well as the island's other minority languages (the Corsican -influenced Sassarese and Gallurese , and finally Tabarchino Ligurian ). Owing to the variety of Sardinia's ecosystems , which include mountains, woods, plains, stretches of largely uninhabited territory, streams, rocky coasts, and long sandy beaches, Sardinia has been metaphorically described as a micro-continent. In

7424-440: The air and the good weather will return; but if the cold-weather front continues to approach the land, bad weather will continue for several days in the entire Mediterranean basin, sometimes transforming into what French meteorologists call an épisode cévenol , a succession of torrential rains and floods, particularly in the areas west of the Rhône Valley: the Ardèche , the Gard , Hérault and Lozère . The summer mistral, unlike

7552-403: The ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden , one of the Sea Peoples . It is suggested that the name had a religious connotation from its use also as the adjective for the ancient Sardinian mythological hero-god Sardus Pater ("Sardinian Father"; a common explanation that the term means "Father of the Sardinians" is incorrect, as that would be "Sardorum Pater"), as well as being the stem of

7680-490: The beginning of the conquest of Sicily in 827. Historian Corrado Zedda argues that the island hosted a Muslim presence during the Aghlabid period, possibly a limited foothold along the coasts that forcibly coexisted with the local Byzantine government. Historian Alex Metcalfe argues that the available evidence for any Muslim occupation or colonisation of the island during this period is limited and inconclusive, and that Muslim attacks were limited to raids. Communication with

7808-462: The beginning. Excavations at the prehistoric site called Terra Amata , at the foot of Mount Boron in Nice , showed that in about 40,000 B.C. the inhabitants had built a low wall of rocks and beach stones to the northwest of their fireplace to protect their fire from the power of the mistral. The mas (farmhouse) traditionally faces south, with its back to the mistral. The bell towers of villages in Provence are often open iron frameworks, which allow

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7936-527: The central government became daunting if not impossible during and after the Muslim conquest of Sicily between 827 and 902. A letter by Pope Nicholas I as early as 864 mentions the "Sardinian judges", without reference to the empire and a letter by Pope John VIII (reigned 872–882) refers to them as principes ("princes"). By the time of De Administrando Imperio , completed in 952, the Byzantine authorities no longer listed Sardinia as an imperial province, suggesting they considered it lost. In all likelihood

8064-404: The coast by the breezes from the sea. It does not blow for more than a single day, but it is feared in Provence, because it dries the vegetation and it can spread forest fires. The mistral helps explain the unusually sunny climate (2700 to 2900 hours of sunshine a year) and clarity of the air of Provence. When other parts of France have clouds and storms, Provence is rarely affected for long, since

8192-408: The coast from the southeast, the weather can change quickly for the worse, and the mistral and its clear sky changes rapidly to an east wind bringing humid air and threatening clouds. The position of the low-pressure front creates a flow of air from the northwest or the northeast, channeled through the Rhône Valley. If this low-pressure area moves back toward the southeast, the mistral will quickly clear

8320-407: The complexity of its surviving buildings, but also in its artworks (e.g. the votive bronze statuettes found across Sardinia or the statues of Mont'e Prama). According to some scholars, the Nuragic people(s) are identifiable with the Sherden , a tribe of the Sea Peoples . The Nuragic civilization was linked with other contemporaneous megalithic civilization of the western Mediterranean, such as

8448-414: The control over the fortress of Castel di Cagliari founded by Pisan merchants in 1216–1217 east of Santa Igia; in the south-west the count Ugolino della Gherardesca promoted the birth of the town of Villa di Chiesa (today Iglesias ) to exploit the nearby rich silver deposits. The Judicate of Logudoro (also called Torres ) was also allied to the Republic of Genoa and came to an end in 1259 after

8576-464: The death of the judikessa (queen) Adelasia . The territory was divided up between the Doria and Malaspina families of Genoa and the Bas-Serra family of Arborea , while the city of Sassari became a small republic , along the lines of the Italian city-states ( comuni ), confederated firstly with Pisa and then with Genoa. The Judicate of Gallura ended in the year 1288, when the last giudice, Nino Visconti (a friend of Dante Alighieri ),

8704-399: The earliest evidence of human presence on Sardinia, around 20,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Maximum . However, other authors contend that there is no solid evidence for the occupation of the island until the early Mesolithic , around 10,000 years ago. The Neolithic began on Sardinia during the 6th millennium BC resulting from the migration of Early European Farmers , replacing

8832-410: The elite in his kingdom. Godas was sent to take charge and ensure the loyalty of Sardinia. He did the exact opposite, declaring the island's independence from Carthage and opening negotiations with Emperor Justinian I , who had declared war on Hilderic's behalf. In AD 533, Gelimer sent the bulk of his army and navy (120 vessels and 5,000 men) to Sardinia to subdue Godas, with the catastrophic result that

8960-405: The end of April. As summer visitors to the beach in Provence learn, the summer mistral can quickly lower the temperature of the sea, as the wind pushes the warm water near the surface out to sea and it is replaced by colder water from greater depths. The mistral regularly affects the weather in Sardinia and sometimes also affects the weather in North Africa, Sicily and Malta and other parts of

9088-414: The end of Byzantine rule in Sardinia are not known. Direct central control was maintained at least through c. 650, after which local legates were empowered in the face of the rebellion of Gregory the Patrician , Exarch of Africa and the first invasion of the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb . There is some evidence that senior Byzantine administration in the Exarchate of Africa retreated to Caralis following

9216-637: The final fall of Carthage to the Arabs in 697. The loss of imperial control in Africa led to escalating raids by Arabs on the island, the first of which is documented in 703, forcing increased military self-reliance in the province. Elsewhere in the central Mediterranean, the Aghlabids conquered the island of Malta in 870. They also attacked or raided Sardinia and Corsica . Some modern references state that Sardinia came under Aghlabid control around 810 or after

9344-422: The former province of Languedoc is currently the fastest-growing in France, and also among the fastest-growing in Europe, as an increasing flow of people from northern France and the north of Europe relocating to the sunbelt of Europe, in which Languedoc is located. Growth is particularly strong in the metropolitan areas of Toulouse and Montpellier , which are the two fastest growing metropolitan areas in Europe at

9472-422: The fortune of the landlords and parliamentarians based in Toulouse , and for whose trade the famous Canal du Midi was built), maize (the new and nowadays most common crop in the region), olives (only on the Mediterranean coast of Languedoc), fruit, and rice (in some coastal areas). In the hilly and mountainous areas of the interior, sheep and goats are raised for meat and cheese. The coastal area is, naturally,

9600-735: The gorges of the Tarn , the Ardèche Gorges , as well as the vast preserved expanses of Cévennes , Ardèche, Lauragais , and other sites. Tourism on the Canal du Midi combines history (for example viewing the nine locks of Fonseranes near Béziers ) with activities such as boating on the Canal, and walking or cycling on the towpaths. Toulouse and Montpellier are also common places for business congresses and conventions. In April 2019, The Guardian 's travel section included two Languedoc locations in its list of 20 of

9728-531: The hilly and mountainous interior where density is extremely low, the Cévennes area in the south of Lozère having one of the lowest densities of Europe with only 7.4 inhabitants per square kilometre (19 inhabitants/sq mi). The five largest metropolitan areas on the territory of the former province of Languedoc are (as of 1999 census): Toulouse (964,797), Montpellier (459,916), Nîmes (221,455), Béziers (124,967), and Alès (89,390). The population of

9856-466: The island is the coast of Cagliari gulf, with less than 450 mm (17.7 in) per year, the minimum is at Capo Carbonara at the extreme south-east of the island 381 mm (15.0 in), and the wettest is the top of the Gennargentu mountain with almost 1,500 mm (59.1 in) per year. The average for the entire island is about 800 mm (31.5 in) per year, which is more than enough for

9984-481: The island of Corsica , the Italian Peninsula , Sicily , Tunisia , the Balearic Islands , and Provence . The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula. The Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica . The coast of Sardinia

10112-461: The island's highlands, formed of granite, schist , trachyte , basalt (called jaras or gollei ), sandstone and dolomite limestone (called tonneri or 'heels'), average at between 300 and 1,000 m (984 and 3,281 ft). The highest peak is Punta La Marmora ( Perdas Carpìas in Sardinian language) (1,834 m (6,017 ft)), part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of

10240-767: The island. Other mountain chains are Monte Limbara (1,362 m (4,469 ft)) in the northeast, the Chain of Marghine and Goceano (1,259 m (4,131 ft)) running crosswise for 40 km (25 mi) towards the north, the Monte Albo (1,057 m (3,468 ft)), the Sette Fratelli Range in the southeast, and the Sulcis Mountains and the Monte Linas (1,236 m (4,055 ft)). The island's ranges and plateaux are separated by wide alluvial valleys and flatlands,

10368-620: The island. Sardinia remained in Byzantine hands for the next 300 years aside from a short period in which it was invaded by the Ostrogoths in 551. Under Byzantine rule, the island was divided into districts called mereíai (μερείαι) in Byzantine Greek , which were governed by a judge residing in Caralis and garrisoned by an army stationed in Forum Traiani (today Fordongianus ) under the command of

10496-506: The law. It was also in charge of registering new royal edicts and laws, and could decide to block them if it found them to be in contravention with the liberties and laws of Languedoc. Finally, for purposes of taxation, Languedoc was ruled by the States of Languedoc, whose jurisdiction included only Languedoc proper (and Albigeois ), but not Gévaudan , Velay , and Vivarais , which kept each their own provincial states until 1789. Languedoc proper

10624-474: The local administration of the kingdom. For judicial and legislative matters, Languedoc was overseen by the Parlement of Toulouse , founded in the middle of the 15th century. It was the first parlement created outside of Paris by the kings of France in order to be the equivalent of the Parlement of Paris in the far-away southern territories of the kingdom. The jurisdiction of the Parlement of Toulouse included

10752-635: The lower elevations. This is similar to a foehn wind, but unlike a foehn wind the descent in altitude does not significantly warm the mistral. The causes and characteristics of the mistral are very similar to those of the Tramontane , another wind of the French Mediterranean region. In France, the mistral particularly affects Provence , Languedoc east of Montpellier , as well as all of the Rhône Valley from Lyon to Marseille , and as far southeast as Corsica and Sardinia. The mistral usually blows from

10880-755: The main ones being the Campidano in the southwest between Oristano and Cagliari and the Nurra in the northwest. Sardinia has few major rivers, the largest being the Tirso , 151 km (94 mi) long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia , the Coghinas (115 km (71 mi)) and the Flumendosa (127 km (79 mi)). There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity. The main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas . The only natural freshwater lake

11008-581: The millennium-old Roman imperial structures with relatively little Germanic influence. Although the Judicates were hereditary lordships, the old Byzantine imperial notion that personal title or honor was separate from the state still remained, so the Judicate was not regarded as the personal property of the monarch as was common in later European feudalism . Like the imperial systems, the new order also preserved "semi-democratic" forms, with national assemblies called

11136-405: The mistral causes the trees to grow leaning to the south. Once the forest has been razed by fire, the strong wind makes it difficult for new trees to grow. The farmers of the Rhône Valley have long planted rows of cypress trees to shelter their crops from the dry force of the mistral. The mistral can also have beneficial effects—the moving air can save crops from the spring frost, which can last until

11264-434: The mistral quickly clears the sky. In less than two hours, the sky can change from completely covered to completely clear. The mistral also blows away the dust, and makes the air particularly clear, so that during the mistral it is possible to see mountains 150 kilometres (93 miles) and farther away. This clarity of the air and light is one of the features that attracted many French impressionist and post-impressionist artists to

11392-506: The modern era, many travelers and writers have extolled the beauty of its long-untouched landscapes, which retain vestiges of the Nuragic civilization . The name Sardinia has pre-Latin roots. It comes from the pre-Roman ethnonym * s(a)rd- , later romanised as sardus (feminine sarda ). It makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone , where the word ŠRDN , or * Šardana , testifies to

11520-437: The moment. However, the interior of Languedoc is still losing inhabitants, which increases the difference of density that was mentioned. Population of the coast of Languedoc as well as the region of Toulouse is rather young, educated, and affluent, whereas in the interior the population tends to be much older, with significantly lower incomes, and with a lower percentage of high school and especially college graduates. Languedoc

11648-408: The most beautiful villages in France . The two were Saint-Guilhem-le-Désert with "one of the finest examples of Romanesque architecture in the region" and Estaing, whose "narrow streets have hardly changed over the centuries". Rugby union is the "national" sport in Languedoc, unlike most other parts of France where football is more popular. The Toulouse rugby club ( Stade Toulousain ) is one of

11776-503: The most successful in Europe; it regularly competes for the French championship and has won four European titles (1996, 2003, 2005, and 2010) in the ten years of the European championship's existence. Bullfighting and other bull-related events are popular in the eastern part of Languedoc. Sea jousts ( Joutes nautiques ) are held on the coast. Dating from the 11th century, this sport has local leagues and attracts large crowds. Property in

11904-418: The mountains (−2 to 4 °C (28 to 39 °F) in January, 16 to 20 °C (61 to 68 °F) in July). Rainfall has a Mediterranean distribution all over the island, with almost totally rainless summers and wet autumns, winters and springs. However, in summer, the rare rainfalls can be characterized by short but severe thunderstorms , which can cause flash floods . The climate is also heavily influenced by

12032-522: The name's existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus , one of Plato 's dialogues, Sardinia (referred to by most ancient Greek authors as Sardṓ , Σαρδώ ) and its people as well might have been named after a legendary woman called Sardṓ ( Σαρδώ ), born in Sardis ( Σάρδεις ), capital of the ancient Kingdom of Lydia . There has also been speculation that identifies

12160-491: The needs of the population and vegetation. The Mistral from the northwest is the dominant wind on and off throughout the year, though it is most prevalent in winter and spring. It can blow quite strongly, but it is usually dry and cool. Sardinia has been inhabited by humans since the end of the Paleolithic era, around 20–10,000 years ago. The island's most notable civilization is the indigenous Nuragic , which flourished from

12288-456: The north or northwest, but in certain pre-alpine valleys and along the Côte d'Azur , the wind is channelled by the mountains so that it blows from east to west. Sometimes it also blows from the north-northeast toward the east of Languedoc as far as Cap Béar. Frequently, the mistral will affect only one part of the region. In the Languedoc area, where the tramontane is the strongest wind, the mistral and

12416-406: The northeast of Languedoc. Some people also consider that the region around Albi was a traditional province, called Albigeois (now the département of Tarn ), although it is most often considered as being part of Languedoc proper. The provinces of Quercy and Rouergue , despite their old ties with Toulouse , were not incorporated into the gouvernement of Languedoc. They were attached to

12544-492: The northwest to the southeast as far as the Mediterranean. This cold, dry wind usually causes a period of cloudless skies and luminous sunshine, which gives the mistral its reputation for making the sky especially clear. There is also, however, the mistral noir, which brings clouds and rain. The mistral noir occurs when the Azores High is extended and draws in unusually moist air from the northwest. The long and enclosed shape of

12672-477: The old provinces of France, they are referring to the gouvernements as they existed in 1789, before the French Revolution . Gouvernements were military regions established by the Crown in the middle of the 16th century; their territories closely matched those of the traditional provinces. However, in some cases, small provinces were merged with a large one into a single gouvernement , so gouvernements are not exactly

12800-500: The others, is created by purely local conditions. It usually happens in July, and only in the valley of the Rhône and on the coast of Provence. It is caused by a thermal depression over the interior of Provence (The Var and Alpes de Haute-Provence), created when the land is overheated. This creates a flow of air from the north toward the east of Provence. This wind is frequently cancelled out close to

12928-478: The province of Vivarais (now the southern part of the département of Ardèche ), and even all the northern half of Provence . After the French conquest the entire county was dismantled, the central part of it being now called Languedoc. The gouvernement of Languedoc was created in the mid-16th century. In addition to Languedoc proper, it included the three small provinces of Gévaudan , Velay , and Vivarais (in its entirety), these three provinces being to

13056-478: The purpose of building the monumental Nuraghes. The Nuraghes are not the only Nuragic buildings that stand in place, as there are several sacred wells around Sardinia and other buildings with religious purposes such as the Giants' grave (monumental collective tombs) and collections of religious buildings that probably served as destinations for pilgrimage and mass religious rites (e.g. Su Romanzesu near Bitti ). At

13184-616: The regency of Torchitorio V of Cagliari and his successor, William III , was allied with the Republic of Genoa . Because of this it was brought to an end in 1258, when its capital, Santa Igia , was stormed and destroyed by an alliance of Sardinian and Pisan forces. The territory then was divided between the Republic of Pisa , the Della Gherardesca family from Italy, and the Sardinian Judicates of Arborea and Gallura. Pisa maintained

13312-539: The region between the river Rhône (border with Provence ) and the Garonne (border with Gascony ), extending northwards to the Cévennes and the Massif Central (border with Auvergne ). As the center of the County of Toulouse and the regional parlement , Toulouse is often considered the "capital" of Languedoc. On maps (both ancient and modern) showing the provinces (i.e., gouvernements ) of France in 1789, it

13440-670: The region in 1214 seeking the restoration of those lands. In the 13th century, the See of Rome challenged the area's spiritual beliefs, and the region became attached to the Kingdom of France following the Albigensian Crusade (1208–1229). This crusade aimed to put an end to what the Catholic Church considered the Cathar heresy . It enabled the Capetian dynasty to extend its influence south of

13568-400: The region, such as France's National Meteorology Office ( Météo-France ) relocated from Paris to Toulouse in 1982. The area is also a major tourist destination. There exists three types of tourism. First, a massive summer tourism industry on the coast, with huge sea resorts such as Cap d'Agde , Palavas-les-Flots , or Le Grau-du-Roi , built in the 1970s. Tourism related to history and art

13696-411: The same as the traditional provinces. Historically, the region was called the County of Toulouse , a county independent from the kings of France. The County of Toulouse was made up of what would later be called Languedoc, but it also included the province of Quercy (now the département of Lot and the northern half of the département of Tarn-et-Garonne ) and the province of Rouergue (now

13824-498: The status of bonnes villes (towns granted privileges and protection by the king of France in return for providing a contingent of men at arms). In that year, the three entered into a perpetual union, after which their contribution of royal officers was summoned jointly rather than separately for each of the three sénéchaussées. Towards the end of 14th century, the term "country of the three seneschalties" ( pays des trois sénéchaussées ), later to become known as Languedoc, designated

13952-420: The summer when the east Adriatic coast gets warmer than the sea. It is thus a mild sea-to-coast wind, unlike the mistral. The strong katabatic wind there is the northeastern bora . In Greece, it is also known as maïstros or maïstráli . In southwestern Crete, it is considered the most beneficial wind, said to blow only in daytime. The mistral played an important part in the life and culture of Provence from

14080-409: The time, Sardinia was at the centre of several commercial routes and it was an important provider of raw materials such as copper and lead, which were pivotal for the manufacture of the time. By controlling the extraction of these raw materials and by trading them with other countries, the ancient Sardinians were able to accumulate wealth and reach a level of sophistication that is not only reflected in

14208-502: The tramontane blow together onto the Gulf of Lion and the northwest of the western Mediterranean, and can be felt to the east of the Balearic Islands , in Sardinia , and sometimes as far as the coast of Africa. When the mistral blows from the west, the mass of air is not so cold and the wind only affects the plain of the Rhône delta and the Côte d'Azur. The good weather is confined to the coast of

14336-557: The two bailiwicks of Bèucaire-Nîmes and Carcassona , and the eastern part of Tolosa (Toulouse), retained under the Treaty of Brétigny . At that time, the County of Foix , which belonged to the seneschal of Carcassona until 1333 before passing to Toulouse, ceased to belong to Languedoc. At this time, the Duchy of Languedoc and the Spanish Duchy of Gandia (of Osuna) became one under the marriage of

14464-504: The two heirs. Later, Duke of Langeuedoc became Governor of Languedoc and Provence; as of 2024 the title is held by the son of the Late Dutchess of Gandia and Prince Obolensky Arnaud Henry Salas-Perez; though the governor role does not exist anymore, title of Duke of Languedoc et Lavandou still remains. In 1542, the province was divided into two généralités : Toulouse for Haut-Languedoc, and Montpellier for Bas-Languedoc. This lasted until

14592-574: The vicinity of the Gulf of Genoa (barometric low) and the relative proximity of the Atlantic Ocean. Low pressures in autumn can generate the formation of the so-called Medicanes , extratropical cyclones which affect the Mediterranean basin. In 2013, the island was hit by several cyclones, included the Cyclone Cleopatra , which dumped 450 mm (18 in) of rainfall within an hour and a half. Sardinia being relatively large and hilly, weather

14720-438: The whole Italian peninsula; their territory was so renamed into the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, and it was reconstituted as the present-day Italian Republic in 1946. Sardinia is one of the most geologically ancient bodies of land in Europe. The island was populated in various waves of immigration from prehistory until recent times. Remains from Corbeddu Cave in eastern Sardinia have been suggested by some authors to represent

14848-460: The whole of the territory of the gouvernement of Languedoc, but it also included the province of Rouergue , most of the province of Quercy , and a part of Gascony . The Parlement of Toulouse was the supreme court of justice for this vast area of France, the court of last resort whose rulings could not be appealed, not even to the Parlement of Paris. The Parlement of Toulouse could also create case law through its decisions, as well as interpret

14976-613: The wind to pass through. The traditional Provençal Nativity scene usually includes a figure of a shepherd holding his hat, with his cloak blowing in the mistral. A Fête du Vent (Festival of Wind) is held periodically on the Prado Beach in Marseille. Notes Bibliography Languedoc The Province of Languedoc ( / ˌ l ɒ̃ ɡ ( ə ) ˈ d ɒ k / , French: [lɑ̃ɡ(ə)dɔk] , locally [lãᵑɡəˈdɔk] ; Occitan : Lengadòc [ˌleŋɡɔˈðɔ(k)] )

15104-413: The winter this is by far the coldest form of the mistral. The wind can blow for more than a week. This kind of mistral is often connected with a low pressure area in the Gulf of Genoa, and it can bring unstable weather to the Côte d'Azur and the east of Provence, sometimes bringing heavy snow to low altitudes in winter. When the flow of air comes from the northeast due to a widespread low pressure area over

15232-458: Was chosen on purpose to diminish the power of Toulouse, whose parlement was very influential, and which symbolized the old spirit of independence of the county of Toulouse . The intendants replaced the governors as administrators of Languedoc, but appointed and dismissed at will by the king, they were no threat to the central state in Versailles . By 1789 they were the most important element of

15360-647: Was conquered and incorporated into the Kingdom of the Franks by Pepin the Short in 759 following the Siege of Narbonne . The term Languedoc originated to describe a cultural region that was not necessarily politically unified. After the decline of the Carolingian Empire political rule fragmented into small territorial divisions. King John of England lost his holdings in northern Languedoc to Philip II of France . He visited

15488-596: Was defeated and beheaded in Toulouse in 1632 by the order of Richelieu . The kings of France became fearful of the power of the governors, so after King Louis XIV (the Sun King) they had to reside in Versailles and were forbidden to enter the territory of their gouvernement . Thus the gouvernements became hollow structures, but they still carried a sense of the old provinces, and so their names and limits have remained popular until today. For administrative purposes, Languedoc

15616-449: Was divided in two généralités , the généralité of Toulouse and the généralité of Montpellier, the combined territory of the two generalities exactly matching that of the gouvernement of Languedoc. At the head of a generality was an intendant , but in the case of Languedoc there was only one intendant responsible for both generalities, and he was often referred to as the intendant of Languedoc, even though technically speaking he

15744-635: Was driven out by the Pisans, who occupied the territory. The Judicate of Arborea , having Oristano as its capital, had the longest life compared to the other kingdoms. Its later history is entwined with the attempt to unify the island into a single Sardinian state ( Republica sardisca 'Sardinian Republic' in Sardinian, Nació sarda or sardesca 'Sardinian Nation' in Catalan) against their relatives and former Aragonese allies. In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII established on his own initiative ( motu proprio )

15872-464: Was founded by people from Tyre , probably in the same time of the foundation of Carthage , in the 9th or 8th century BC. In the 6th century BC, after the conquest of western Sicily, the Carthaginians planned to annex Sardinia. A first invasion attempt led by Malchus was foiled by the victorious Nuraghic resistance. However, from 510 BC, the southern and west-central part of the island were invaded

16000-420: Was in fact the intendant of the generality of Toulouse and intendant of the generality of Montpellier. The generality of Toulouse is also referred to as Upper Languedoc ( Haut-Languedoc ), while the generality of Montpellier, down to the level of the sea, is referred to as Lower Languedoc ( Bas-Languedoc ). The intendants of Languedoc resided in Montpellier, and they had a sub-delegate in Toulouse. Montpellier

16128-491: Was often contested by the Sardinian tribes from the mountainous regions. The east Germanic tribe of the Vandals conquered Sardinia in 456. Their rule lasted for 78 years up to 534, when 400 eastern Roman troops led by Cyril, one of the officers of the foederati , retook the island. It is known that the Vandal government continued the forms of the existing Roman Imperial structure. The governor of Sardinia continued to be called

16256-475: Was one of the very few provinces of France which had the privilege to decide over tax matters, the kings of France having suppressed the provincial states in most other provinces of the kingdom. This was a special favor from the kings to ensure that an independently spirited region far-away from Versailles would remain faithful to the central state. The States of Languedoc met in many different cities, and for some time they established themselves in Pézenas , but in

16384-664: Was the Iberian Crown of Aragon which, in 1324, succeeded in bringing the island under its control, consolidating it into the Kingdom of Sardinia . This Iberian kingdom endured until 1718, when it was ceded to the Alpine House of Savoy ; the Savoyards would politically merge their insular possession with their domains on the Italian Mainland which, during the period of Italian unification , they would go on to expand to include

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