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54-526: The Mackintosh raincoat (abbreviated as mac ) is a form of waterproof raincoat , first sold in 1824, made of rubberised fabric . The Mackintosh is named after its Scottish inventor Charles Macintosh , although many writers added a letter k . The variant spelling of "Mackintosh" is now standard. Although the Mackintosh coat style has become generic, a genuine Mackintosh coat is made from rubberised or rubber laminated material. It has been claimed that

108-581: A slippery slope scenario in his style guide that, "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis." Some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus, including the Southern Baptist Convention . The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows

162-630: A generic sense, to refer to "the common era of the Jews". The first use of the phrase "before the common era" may be that in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms, in a translation of a book originally written in German. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously. In 1835, in his book Living Oracles , Alexander Campbell , wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini;

216-499: A lower apron. Materials varied, and were usually locally sourced. Each set took two to three days to craft and was typically paired with a matching straw hat . Raindrops that fell on such garments would run along the fibers and not penetrate into the interior, keeping the wearer dry. They were a common sight among farmers and fishermen on rainy and snowy days, as well as travelers during the rainy season. The raincoat being an absolutely indispensable asset, famed writer Xu Guangqi recorded

270-602: A matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era. Adena K. Berkowitz, in her application to argue before the United States Supreme Court , opted to use BCE and CE because, "Given the multicultural society that we live in,

324-514: A non-rubberized cotton or wool lining to improve comfort. Popular 1920s raincoat colors were tan, navy blue, and grey. Some of these coats were hooded, but often were not and instead accompanied by a matching rain hat. In the 1930s, cellophane and PVC rainwear was preferred by many due to the poor economy during the Depression. They were economical, since only one covering had to be purchased instead of buying multiple fashion raincoats. They came in

378-685: A period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the College Board in its history tests, and by the Norton Anthology of English Literature . Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism . The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News says that BCE and CE should be used. In June 2006, in

432-727: A popular proverb during the Ming : "No raincoat, no going out." When hunting or traveling at night, the coat could be used as a sleeping pad, and the smell of the leaves would drive away insects and snakes. When worn in wetlands or forests, these cloaks often blended in with the surrounding landscape, making the wearer more difficult to see . As garments made with pre-modern technology, they were extremely waterproof and breathable, but also bulky, and vulnerable to fire. While no longer used as raingear in modern times, traditional straw raincoats are still being made for special purposes such as religious events, tourist souvenirs, and interior decorations. During

486-464: A result, rubber remained an impractical curiosity to Europeans until their redevelopment of the vulcanization process about 300 years later. One of the first modern waterproof raincoats was created following the patent by Scottish chemist Charles Macintosh in 1824 of new tarpaulin fabric, described by him as "India rubber cloth," and made by sandwiching a core of rubber softened by naphtha between two pieces of fabric. The Mackintosh raincoat

540-520: A tendency to melt in hot weather. Hancock improved his waterproof fabrics, patenting a method for vulcanising rubber in 1843, solving many of the problems. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the company continued to make waterproof clothing. In 1925 the company was taken over by Dunlop Rubber . In the mid-1990s the Mackintosh brand owner, Traditional Weatherwear, was on the verge of closing its factory in Blairlinn , Cumbernauld near Glasgow. Around

594-593: A tyrant who persecuted Christians. He numbered years from an initial reference date (" epoch "), an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as " Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi " (Of the year of our Lord Jesus Christ]. This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe with its use by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced

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648-615: A variety of styles, including clear translucent. In the 1940s and 1950s, DuPont Nylon emerged in the US as a durable synthetic material that was both lightweight and water-resistant; well-suited to rainwear. New coat styles using tightly woven cotton or rayon gabardine , and a treated shiny “paratroop” twill rayon for extra water resistance were also popular. Raincoats were offered in larger variety of colors like varying shades of blue, gray, bright greens, brown, or natural and could be purchased with taffeta and other synthetic blend linings. Between

702-480: Is a direct reference to Jesus as Lord . Proponents of the Common Era notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians , but who are not themselves Christian. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has argued: [T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as

756-481: Is in particularly common use in Nepal in order to disambiguate dates from the local calendar, Bikram or Vikram Sambat. Disambiguation is needed because the era of the local calendar is quite close to the Common Era. In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools, and by 2018 some local education authorities were using them. In 2018,

810-642: The Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix. As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar. As of 2005 , Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century. Jews have also used the term Current Era . Some academics in the fields of theology , education , archaeology and history have adopted CE and BCE notation despite some disagreement. A study conducted in 2014 found that

864-481: The Jenckes Spinning Company , creating rubberized, waterproof fabrics that were softer, more pliable and more comfortable. Stiff raincoats made completely of rubber called "slickers" were also available, as well as raincoats made of heavy oilcloth. These raincoats and "slickers" mimicked the coat fashion of the time; long length, loose belt, high roll/convertible collar, large pockets, and were often sewn with

918-704: The National Trust said it would continue to use BC/AD as its house style. English Heritage explains its era policy thus: "It might seem strange to use a Christian calendar system when referring to British prehistory, but the BC/AD labels are widely used and understood." Some parts of the BBC use BCE/CE, but some presenters have said they will not. As of October 2019, the BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE. The style guide for The Guardian says, under

972-656: The Qing dynasty , emperors and officials wore raincoats made out of the pipal tree . Yellow garments were for the exclusive use of the emperor, red ones for princes and the highest court officials, and cyan ones for the second-ranking officials. Raincoats were made out of felt for winter use, with sateen and camlet for spring through autumn. Rain capes made of straw have many indigenous names in modern Mexico, but they are most well known as capotes de plumas (also chereque , cherépara , or chiripe ) as they are known in Michoacan and

1026-536: The Zhou dynasty in China, the main materials for making raincoats and capes was rice straw, sedge , burlap , and coir . In southern China, hydrangeas were also used. Since at least 200 BCE, lightweight silk hanfu were rubbed with vegetable oils such as Tung oil to repel the rain. During the Ming dynasty , wealthy men and women could wear a “jade needle cape” made of Chinese silvergrass , considered soft and waterproof. During

1080-457: The capisallo from Tlaxcala , so named for the palm leaves' resemblance to bird feathers . In some regions, such as Colima , these rain capes are called china de palma trenzada because of their presumed Filipino origins . These capes can still be found today, in the most traditional indigenous corners of the country. In New Zealand, the pākē or hieke are made from New Zealand Flax . In Polynesian Hawaii , Kui la’i or Ahu La`i are made from

1134-597: The date of birth of Jesus . Since the year numbers are the same, BCE and CE dates should be equally offensive to other religions as BC and AD. Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers and forcing it on other nations. In 1993, the English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated

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1188-431: The rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ), and cure the latex resin into stabilized rubber using the sulfuric compounds of the morning glory in order to create some of the world's first waterproof textile fabrics using cotton and other plant fibers. These rubberized fabrics were crafted into waterproof cloaks, direct precursors to the modern raincoat, as well as other waterproof clothing like shoes. The indigenous peoples of

1242-418: The 1950s and 1960s, PVC rainwear experienced a resurgence in popularity for the plastic's bright and diverse colors and futuristic look. In the early 1960s, raincoats were introduced in high visibility colors for outdoor workwear and later were offered with retroreflective accents. Raincoats can also be used as a personal protective equipment , particularly in areas where PPEs are in short supply. However,

1296-581: The BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense of BC and AD notation in the scholarly literature, and that both notations are used in a relatively stable fashion. In 2011, media reports suggested that the BC/AD notation in Australian school textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE notation. The change drew opposition from some politicians and church leaders. Weeks after the story broke, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied

1350-568: The Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified, e.g., "common era of the Incarnation", "common era of the Nativity", or "common era of the birth of Christ". An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Era Vulgaris was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley , and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD. Although Jews have their own Hebrew calendar , they often use

1404-487: The Gregorian Calendar as BCE and CE without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth." In History Today , Michael Ostling wrote: "BC/AD Dating: In the year of whose Lord? The continuing use of AD and BC is not only factually wrong but also offensive to many who are not Christians." Critics note the fact that there is no difference in the epoch of the two systems—chosen to be close to

1458-503: The Northwest Pacific Coast wore raincoats and other clothing made of woven cedar fiber which, depending on the tightness of the weave, could be dense and watertight, or soft and comfortable. Throughout much of Eastern and Midwestern regions of North America, many Native American nations used treated leather from a variety of animals to create waterproof clothes, sometimes covered in fringe , to stay warm and dry. In addition to

1512-603: The United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion. The use of CE in Jewish scholarship was historically motivated by the desire to avoid the implicit "Our Lord" in the abbreviation AD . Although other aspects of dating systems are based in Christian origins, AD

1566-464: The coat in 1843, solving many of the problems. In 1853, Aquascutum introduced a woolen fabric that was chemically treated to shed water. From then on into the early 20th century, the treated wool trench coat was popular fashion rainwear in Europe and the colder regions of the United States, especially among their military circles. In the 1910s and 1920s, gas and vapor fabric rubberization techniques were patented at textile finishing mills such as

1620-583: The company name was formally changed to Mackintosh. In 2007, Mackintosh was bought by Tokyo firm Yagi Tsusho. With the backing of its parent company, Mackintosh has continued to expand its reputation and marketing operations. In January 2011, the company opened its first fashion store in London. Raincoat Modern raincoats are often constructed from waterproof fabrics that are breathable , such as Gore-Tex or Tyvek and DWR -coated nylon . These fabrics and membranes allow water vapor to pass through, allowing

1674-466: The decorative function, fringe would pull water off the main portion of their clothes so that the garment dried quicker. The particularities of the Arctic climate gave rise to a distinctive culture of waterproof clothing. The Inuit, Aleuts, and many other peoples in the Arctic region have traditionally worn shirts, coats, and parkas made from the skins of seal, sea otter, fish, and birds. Birdskin shirts, with

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1728-462: The early 20th century. The phrase "common era", in lower case , also appeared in the 19th century in a "generic" sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in common use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews", "the common era of the Mahometans", "common era of the world", "the common era of the foundation of Rome". When it did refer to

1782-453: The effectiveness depends on the style and materials used . BCE Common Era ( CE ) and Before the Common Era ( BCE ) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar ), the world's most widely used calendar era . Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the original Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations used for

1836-428: The entry for CE/BCE: "some people prefer CE (common era, current era, or Christian era) and BCE (before common era, etc.) to AD and BC, which, however, remain our style". In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks was reported in 2005 to be growing. Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending

1890-552: The feathers on the outside, provide excellent protection from rain as they repel moisture. In Aleut culture, a kamleika is worn as the outermost garment on top of the parka when necessary. In East Asian cultures such as Vietnam, China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, the use of naturally water-repellent plant fibers, such as rice straw , to create waterproof raincoats and cloaks has been known since ancient times. This raincoat style often consisted of both an upper rainjacket and

1944-486: The fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days", and also refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era with "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era". The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) in at least one article reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by

1998-430: The garment to 'breathe' so that the sweat of the wearer can escape. The amount of pouring rain a raincoat can handle is sometimes measured in the unit millimeters, water gauge . One of oldest examples of rainwear recorded is likely the woven grass cape/mat of Ötzi , around 3230 BCE . The Olmec Native Americans first invented rubber sometime before 1600 BCE. They developed methods to extract natural latex resin from

2052-410: The later Medieval period. Wool was known for its ability to keep the wearer warm even when soaked, especially wool that had been fulled during the manufacturing process. If wool was made without stringent cleaning, it would retain some of the sheep's lanolin and be naturally somewhat water-resistant although not fully waterproof. Waxing of garments was known in England, but seldom done elsewhere due to

2106-532: The leaves of the Ti plant , used not only to protect people from the rain, but also from the sun in hotter parts of the islands. Fishermen would wear them for protection from foul weather and ocean spray, similar in purpose to oilskins . Furs were popular rainwear in Europe for much of its history, although the modest means of peasants and poor laborers limited the fur to cheaper varieties of goat or cat. Eventually, wool rainwear replaced fur as popular attitudes changed in

2160-468: The material was invented by the surgeon James Syme , but then copied and patented by Charles Macintosh ; Syme's method of creating the solvent from coal tar was published in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy in 1818; this paper also describes the dissolution of natural rubber in naphtha. However, a detailed history of the invention of the Mackintosh was published by Schurer. The essence of Macintosh's process

2214-423: The mid-19th century by Jewish religious scholars. Since the late 20th century, BCE and CE have become popular in academic and scientific publications on the grounds that BCE and CE are religiously neutral terms. They have been promoted as more sensitive to non-Christians by not referring to Jesus , the central figure of Christianity , especially via the religious terms " Christ " and Dominus ("Lord") used by

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2268-464: The other abbreviations. Nevertheless, its epoch remains the same as that used for the Anno Domini era. The idea of numbering years beginning from the date that he believed to be the date of birth of Jesus , was conceived around the year 525 by the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus . He did this to replace the then dominant Era of Martyrs system, because he did not wish to continue the memory of

2322-472: The practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, without a year zero . In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as " Vulgar Era" to distinguish years of the Anno Domini era, which was in popular use, from dates of the regnal year (the year of

2376-503: The reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law. (The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations. ) The first use of the Latin term anno aerae nostrae vulgaris may be that in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler . Kepler uses it again, as ab Anno vulgaris aerae , in a 1616 table of ephemerides , and again, as ab anno vulgaris aerae , in 1617. A 1635 English edition of that book has

2430-576: The rumours and stated that the BC/AD notation would remain, with CE and BCE as an optional suggested learning activity. In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa ), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public while retaining BCE/CE in academic content. The notation

2484-541: The same calendar era. The two notation systems are numerically equivalent: "2024 CE" and "AD 2024" each describe the current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year. The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in a book by Johannes Kepler as the Latin : annus aerae nostrae vulgaris ( year of our common era ), and to 1635 in English as " Vulgar Era". The term "Common Era" can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in

2538-576: The scarcity and expense of wax. In the 15th and 16th century CE , Europeans arriving to the Americas recorded for themselves that the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and the Amazon basin had created waterproof rubber-impregnated fabrics, although the Native American procedure of curing rubber was not well conveyed to them, and the tropical rubber tree did not grow well in the colder climates of Europe. As

2592-488: The title page in English that may be the earliest-found use of Vulgar Era in English. A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,   6". The Merriam Webster Dictionary gives 1716 as the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (which it defines as Christian era). The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase annus aerae christianae on

2646-480: The title page of a 1584 theology book, De Eucharistica controuersia . In 1649, the Latin phrase annus æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac. A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance found so far of the English use of "Christian Era". The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708, and in a 1715 book on astronomy it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era". A 1759 history book uses common æra in

2700-486: The traditional Jewish designations – B.C.E. and C.E. – cast a wider net of inclusion." In the World History Encyclopedia , Joshua J. Mark wrote "Non-Christian scholars, especially, embraced [CE and BCE] because they could now communicate more easily with the Christian community. Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist scholars could retain their [own] calendar but refer to events using

2754-460: The turn of the 21st century, senior staff members acquired the company and established the traditional rubberised Mackintosh coat as an upmarket brand in its own right. The company collaborated with leading fashion houses such as Gucci , Hermès , Louis Vuitton , and Liberty . The coats became particularly popular with Japanese women, and the company won a Queen's Award for Enterprise in 2000 for its success in international trade. In December 2003

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2808-406: Was made out of a fabric impregnated with impermeable rubber, although lacking the better curing methods of earlier Mesoamerican rainwear, the early coats suffered from odor, stiffness, and a tendency to deteriorate from natural body oils and hot weather. Many tailors were reluctant to use his new fabric, and had no interest in it. Charles set up his own company and eventually added vulcanized rubber to

2862-648: Was not satisfactory for making apparel. In 1830 Macintosh's company merged with the clothing company of Thomas Hancock in Manchester . Hancock had also been experimenting with rubber coated fabrics since 1819. Production of rubberised coats soon spread across the UK. All kinds of coats were produced with rubberized material, including riding coats and coats supplied to the British Army, British railways, and UK police forces. Early coats had problems with poor smell, stiffness, and

2916-714: Was the sandwiching of an impermeable layer of a solution of rubber in naphtha between two layers of fabric. The naphtha was distilled from coal tar, with the Bonnington Chemical Works being a major supplier. Syme did not propose the sandwich idea, and his paper did not mention waterproofing. Waterproofing garments with rubber was an old idea and was practised in pre-Columbian times by the Aztecs, who impregnated fabric with latex . Later French scientists made balloons gas-tight (and incidentally, impermeable) by impregnating fabric with rubber dissolved in turpentine, but this solvent

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