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81-439: As noted in the sequel, some single reports have evoked media interest also outside health and medical contexts. However, many reports are parts of series, providing consistent long-term statistics, and also indicating trend changes. Such a standing report section is the "Notifiable Diseases and Mortality Tables", which reports deaths by disease and state, and city for city, for 122 large cities. As another example, there are more than

162-448: A battery factory had average BLLs of 43 μg/dL. In China, 50% of children living in rural areas had BLLs above 10 μg/dL, and children living near sites of industry and high traffic had average BLLs ranging from 22 to 68 μg/dL. BLL measurements from developed countries decreased markedly beginning in the late 1970s, when restrictions were placed upon lead use in gasoline, petrol, paint, soldering material and other products. In

243-504: A blood lead 'level of concern' cannot be used to define individuals in need of intervention". The new policy is to aim to reduce average blood lead levels in US children to as low a level as possible. The CDC now publishes a "reference" blood lead level which they hope can decrease in coming years. The reference value is "based on the 97.5th percentile of the BLL distribution among children 1–5 years old in

324-499: A blood lead level ≥10 μg/dL". Moreover, the CDC emphasizes, that the original report did warn for negative effects on health of the BLLs it did report, did note that there are no safe known limits, and did demand actions for reducing the level of lead in drinking water. They also maintain, that the overall trend was towards sinking BLLs, even when the full data set is taken into consideration. During

405-479: A change largely attributed to phasing out leaded gasoline. No level of lead in the blood of children is currently thought to be safe, but in 2021, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identified 3.5 μg/dL as the blood lead level of concern in children which should prompt further medical investigation. Approximately 2.5% of American children have at least this much lead in their blood. Measuring

486-725: A hundred items about West Nile virus infections since the 1999 outbreak of the disease in the US. In 2001–2005, there were weekly updates of the WNV situation, during the warm seasons. MMWR has its roots in the establishment of the Public Health Service (PHS). On January 3, 1896, the Public Health Service began publishing Public Health Reports . Morbidity and mortality statistics were published in Public Health Reports until January 20, 1950, when they were transferred to

567-443: A marked increase in high-level results from 2001 to 2004, among small children. The results of Marc Edwards et al. came from analysis of the same raw data as those underlying the 2004 CDC report. In 2007, Edwards wrote to the CDC's associate director of science, James Stephens, questioning the report's conclusions and methodology, and the competence of its principal author. In 2008, Stephens answered him: "We have examined CDC's role in

648-416: A nearly ubiquitous geographical distribution, being present on all major land masses except Antarctica and Iceland. Nevertheless, changes in climate and land use on ecological timescales can variously expand or fragment their distribution patterns, raising consequent concerns for human health. Blood lead level Blood lead level ( BLL ), is a measure of the amount of lead in the blood . Lead

729-583: A new publication of the PHS National Office of Vital Statistics called the Weekly Morbidity Report . In 1952, NOVS changed the name of this publication to the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report , which continues through the current day (2020). Several notable articles have been published in the report including: On the other hand, there have been articles that have been controversial, such as

810-515: A number of his other patients as having pneumocystis pneumonia . A report they jointly wrote and published in the June 5, 1981, issue of Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report , described their patients as "5 young men, all active homosexuals, [who] were treated for biopsy-confirmed Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia at 3 different hospitals in Los Angeles, California" of which "[t]wo of the patients died" by

891-485: A person's blood lead level requires a blood sample, which may be performed with a fingerstick or a blood draw . The amount of lead found in the blood sample may be measured in micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood (μg/dL) especially in the United States; 5 μg/dL is equivalent to 0.24 μmol/L ( micromolar ). BLL cannot measure long-term lead exposure. An x-ray fluorescence test provides measurements from

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972-453: A report stating a low concerns for risks of elevated blood levels of lead in Washington, DC (April 2004). The article was notable and later criticized for not emphasizing the risks, and now is available together with two amending "notices to the readers" by CDC from 2010. Five cases of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) were reported in what turned out to be the first reporting of AIDS in

1053-518: A vaccine for human use and several candidates have been produced but none are licensed to use. The best method to reduce the risk of infections is avoiding mosquito bites. This may be done by eliminating standing pools of water, such as in old tires, buckets, gutters, and swimming pools. Mosquito repellent , window screens , mosquito nets , and avoiding areas where mosquitoes occur may also be useful. Like other tropical diseases which are expected to have increased spread due to climate change, there

1134-409: Is a toxic heavy metal and can cause neurological damage , especially among children, at any detectable level. High lead levels cause decreased vitamin D and haemoglobin synthesis as well as anemia , acute central nervous system disorders , and possibly death. Pre-industrial human BLL measurements are estimated to have been 0.016 μg/dL, and this level increased markedly in the aftermath of

1215-475: Is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes West Nile fever . It is a member of the family Flaviviridae , from the genus Flavivirus , which also contains the Zika virus , dengue virus , and yellow fever virus. The virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes , mostly species of Culex . The primary hosts of WNV are birds, so that the virus remains within a "bird–mosquito–bird" transmission cycle. The virus

1296-555: Is a subtype of West Nile virus endemic to Oceania . A 2007 fatal case in a killer whale in Texas broadened the known host range of West Nile virus to include cetaceans . Since the first North American cases in 1999, the virus has been reported throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central America. There have been human cases and equine cases, and many birds are infected. The Barbary macaque , Macaca sylvanus ,

1377-452: Is an enveloped virus with icosahedral symmetry . Electron microscope studies reveal a 45–50 nm virion covered with a relatively smooth protein shell; this structure is similar to the dengue fever virus, another Flavivirus . The protein shell is made of two structural proteins: the glycoprotein E and the small membrane protein M. Protein E has numerous functions including receptor binding, viral attachment, and entry into

1458-467: Is an infection by the West Nile virus, which is typically spread by mosquitoes . In about 80% of infections people have few or no symptoms . About 20% of people develop a fever , headache, vomiting, or a rash. In less than 1% of people, encephalitis or meningitis occurs, with associated neck stiffness, confusion, or seizures. Recovery may take weeks to months. The risk of death among those in whom

1539-466: Is concern that changing weather conditions will increase West Nile Virus spread. Climate change will affect disease rates, ranges, and seasonality and affects the distribution of West Nile Virus. Projected changes in flood frequency and severity can bring new challenges in flood risk management , allowing for increased mosquito populations in urban areas. Weather conditions affected by climate change including temperature, precipitation and wind may affect

1620-561: Is genetically related to the Japanese encephalitis family of viruses. Humans and horses both exhibit disease symptoms from the virus, and symptoms rarely occur in other animals. Contrary to popular belief, West Nile virus was not named directly after the Nile River , but rather, after the West Nile district of Uganda where the virus was first isolated in 1937. Like most other flaviviruses, WNV

1701-563: Is no specific treatment for the disease; pain medications may reduce symptoms. Severe disease may also occur in horses. Several vaccines for these animals are now available. Before the availability of veterinary vaccines, around 40% of horses infected in North America died. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , infection with West Nile Virus is seasonal in temperate zones. Climates that are temperate, such as those in

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1782-414: Is particularly useful. If dead birds are found in a neighborhood, the event should be reported to local authorities. This may help health departments do surveillance and determine if the birds are infected with West Nile Virus. Despite the commercial availability of four veterinary vaccines for horses, no human vaccine has progressed beyond phase II clinical trials . Efforts have been made to produce

1863-540: Is possible in mosquitoes, and might potentially be important in overwintering. In the urban or spillover cycle, infected mosquitoes that have fed on infected birds transmit the virus to humans. This requires mosquito species that bite both birds and humans, which are termed bridge vectors. The virus can also rarely be spread through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Unlike in birds, it does not otherwise spread directly between people. West Nile fever

1944-742: Is the source of the epidemic transmission in Africa and throughout the world. Lineage 2 was considered an African zoonosis . However, in 2008, lineage 2, previously only seen in horses in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, began to appear in horses in Europe, where the first known outbreak affected 18 animals in Hungary. Lineage 1 West Nile virus was detected in South Africa in 2010 in a mare and her aborted fetus ; previously, only lineage 2 West Nile virus had been detected in horses and humans in South Africa. Kunjin virus

2025-419: Is then cleaved by both host and viral proteases NS2B-NS3 to produce mature proteins. In order to replicate its genome, NS5, a RNA polymerase , forms a replication complex with other nonstructural proteins to produce an intermediary negative-sense single-stranded RNA ; the negative-sense strand serves as a template for synthesis of the final positive-sense RNA. Once the positive-sense RNA has been synthesized,

2106-500: Is to package RNA into the developing viruses. The capsid has been found to prevent apoptosis by affecting the Akt pathway. WNV is a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus . Its genome is approximately 11,000 nucleotides long and is flanked by 5′ and 3′ non-coding stem loop structures. The coding region of the genome codes for three structural proteins and seven nonstructural (NS) proteins , proteins that are not incorporated into

2187-561: Is twofold, first by personal protective actions and second by mosquito-control actions. When a person is in an area that has WNV, it is important to avoid outdoor activity, and if they go outside they should use a mosquito repellent with DEET. A person can also wear clothing that covers more skin, such as long sleeves and pants. Mosquito control can be done at the community level and include surveillance programs and control programs including pesticides and reducing mosquito habitats. This includes draining standing water. Surveillance systems in birds

2268-433: Is typically based on symptoms and blood tests. There is no human vaccine . The best way to reduce the risk of infection is to avoid mosquito bites. Mosquito populations may be reduced by eliminating standing pools of water, such as in old tires, buckets, gutters, and swimming pools. When mosquitoes cannot be avoided, mosquito repellent , window screens , and mosquito nets reduce the likelihood of being bitten. There

2349-508: Is unlikely to be important in natural transmission. WNV has a broad host range, and is also known to be able to infect at least 30 mammalian species, including humans, some non-human primates, horses, dogs and cats. Some infected humans and horses experience disease but dogs and cats rarely show symptoms. Reptiles and amphibians can also be infected, including some species of crocodiles, alligators, snakes, lizards and frogs. Mammals are considered incidental or dead-end hosts for

2430-715: The American Economic Journal: Applied Economics found that for Rhode Island children born 1997–2005 (and therefore exposed to historically low levels of lead), "a one-unit decrease in average blood lead levels reduces the probability of being substantially below proficient in reading (math) by 0.96 (0.79) percentage points on a baseline of 12 (16) percent." A 2020 study that looked at the phasing-out of leaded gasoline in Sweden and used extensive administrative data to track 800,000 Swedish children into adulthood found that even low levels of lead adversely affected

2511-647: The American crow ( Corvus brachyrhynchos ), blue jay ( Cyanocitta cristata ) and greater sage-grouse ( Centrocercus urophasianus ), are killed by the infection, but others survive. The American robin ( Turdus migratorius ) and house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) are thought to be among the most important reservoir species in N. American and European cities. Brown thrashers ( Toxostoma rufum ), gray catbirds ( Dumetella carolinensis ), northern cardinals ( Cardinalis cardinalis ), northern mockingbirds ( Mimus polyglottos ), wood thrushes ( Hylocichla mustelina ) and

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report - Misplaced Pages Continue

2592-619: The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States , MMWR came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what President Donald Trump was saying about the pandemic. Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo , the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to change, delay, suppress, and retroactively edit MMWR stories about

2673-513: The dove family are among the other common N. American birds in which high levels of antibodies against WNV have been found. WNV has been demonstrated in a large number of mosquito species, but the most significant for viral transmission are Culex species that feed on birds, including Culex pipiens , C. restuans , C. salinarius , C. quinquefasciatus , C. nigripalpus , C. erraticus and C. tarsalis . Experimental infection has also been demonstrated with soft tick vectors, but

2754-504: The nervous system is affected is about 10 percent. West Nile virus (WNV) is usually spread by mosquitoes that become infected when they feed on infected birds, which often carry the disease . Rarely the virus is spread through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding, but it otherwise does not spread directly between people. Risks for severe disease include being over 60 years old and having other health problems. Diagnosis

2835-409: The 2004 CDC report. Investigators found that although the CDC and city health department reported dangerous lead levels in 193 children in 2003, the actual number was 486 according to records taken directly from the testing laboratories. In 2010, in their final report, the committee concluded that the CDC knowingly used flawed data in drafting the report, leading to "scientifically indefensible" claims in

2916-399: The 2004 paper. It also cited the CDC for failing to publicize later research showing that the harm was more serious than the 2004 report suggested. The CDC did not withdraw the report, but in 2010 amended it with two "notices to the readers", with the following explanations. The CDC maintained that the report essentially is correct, but admitted that the presentation was misleading, as regards

2997-437: The 3′ end of the genome. Once WNV has successfully entered the bloodstream of a host animal, the envelope protein, E, binds to attachment factors called glycosaminoglycans on the host cell. These attachment factors aid entry into the cell, however, binding to primary receptors is also necessary. Primary receptors include DC-SIGN , DC-SIGN-R, and the integrin α v β 3 . By binding to these primary receptors, WNV enters

3078-519: The CDC study, had found clear evidence of a correlation between rather high amounts of lead in the water on the one hand, and rather high amounts of lead in the blood of children on the other. Specifically, there were cases known to him, of children with BBL clearly exceeding 10 μg/dL; but these cases were absent from the material presented in the MMWR . Marc Edwards and pediatrician Dana Best of Children's National Medical Center in Washington, actually found

3159-430: The United States and Europe, see peak season from July to October. Peak season changes depending on geographic region and warmer and humid climates can see longer peak seasons. All ages are equally likely to be infected but there is a higher amount of death and neuroinvasive West Nile Virus in people 60–89 years old. People of older age are more likely to have adverse effects. There are several modes of transmission, but

3240-609: The United States have potential occupational exposure to lead, and lead poisoning is still seen at occupational health clinics. Other known occupations include shipbuilding, painting, battery making, and fire range instruction and cleaning. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states "No safe blood lead level in children has been identified. Even low levels of lead in blood have been shown to affect IQ, ability to pay attention, and academic achievement. Effects of lead exposure cannot be corrected". "The absence of an identified BLL without deleterious effects, combined with

3321-462: The United States". Blood lead levels are highest in countries where lead is added to petrol or gasoline , where lead is used in paint or soldered products, in urban areas, in areas adjacent to high road traffic, and in developing countries. In Jamaica, 44% of children living near lead production facilities had BLLs above 25 μg/dL. In Albania, 98% of preschool children and 82% of schoolchildren had BLLs above 10 μg/dL; preschoolers living near

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report - Misplaced Pages Continue

3402-490: The United States". As of 2021, the value is set at 3.5 μg/dL. It is not a level deemed by the CDC as "safe". The reference level is designed to be used as a policy tool. Parents, clinicians, communities, state and federal authorities and political leaders are expected to monitor blood lead test levels, aware that children testing higher than the reference level are testing higher than 97.5% of all US children. The CDC expects action to be taken when test levels are found to exceed

3483-530: The United States, average BLLs measured among tens of thousands of subjects declined from 12.8 to 2.8 μg/dL between 1976 and 1991. In the 1990s, BLLs of children in Australia were measured to be 5 μg/dL, and 9 μg/dL in Barcelona, Spain. In the United States, blood lead levels remain highest for children, for people in urban centers, for people of lower socioeconomic status, and for minorities. After

3564-442: The absence of data, and as regards the claim that no children with BLLs above the alert threshold 10 μg/dL were found. That claim, they stated, "was misleading because it referred only to data from the cross-sectional study and did not reflect findings of concern from the separate longitudinal study that showed that children living in homes serviced by a lead water pipe were more than twice as likely as other DC children to have had

3645-450: The age of Earth. When he discovered that preindustrial humans had far less lead in their bodies than all modern humans, he wrote: "It seems probable that persons polluted with amounts of lead that are at least 400 times higher than natural levels, and are nearly one-third to one-half that required to induce dysfunction, that their lives are being adversely affected by loss of mental acuity and irrationality. This would apply to most people in

3726-425: The air that people breathe all have the potential of containing lead. Other major sources of lead exposure include ingestion and contact with products such as paint and soil that may contain lead. Many older claw-foot bathtubs have also been found to leach lead, especially when filled with warm bath water. Environmental exposure to lead is not the only source of lead-related health effects. Many industrial workers in

3807-487: The authorities should take measures to ensure that the amount of lead in drinking water always should be less than 15 PPM. The report does not in itself provide any recommendations to the ordinary Washington, DC inhabitants, but it notes that the District of Columbia Department of Health has "recommended that young children and pregnant and breast-feeding women refrain from drinking unfiltered tap water". The report later

3888-520: The background, and the various kinds of blood tests it employed, and explicitly states: "All blood tests were used in this analysis." There is no mention at all of any test results not being available, not even in the caveat section, where other potential sources of error are discussed. The report concludes that the high amounts of lead in the drinking water may have led to a slight rise of the blood levels; however, it claimed that "no children were identified with BLLs >10 μg/dL, even in homes with

3969-447: The bloodstream through exposure and elevates blood lead level that may result in lead poisoning or an elevated blood lead level. For example, a child can ingest lead by chewing on a toy that is made of lead-contaminated metal or is painted with lead-contaminated paint . A major source of exposure to lead comes from inhalation. Factories and industries, vehicle exhaust (especially from vehicles using leaded gasoline ), and even dust in

4050-464: The body. The principal organs affected are the central and peripheral nervous system and the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, renal, endocrine, immune and haematological systems". Adults who are exposed to a dangerous amount of lead can experience anemia, nervous system dysfunction, weakness, hypertension, kidney problems, decreased fertility, an increased level of miscarriages, premature deliveries, and low birth weight of their child. A 2018 study in

4131-415: The bone because lead is predominantly stored in the human body in calcified tissues such as bones. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) changed its view on blood lead levels in 2012 because of "a growing body of studies concluding that blood lead levels (BLLs) lower than 10 μg/dL harm children" with "irreversible" effects, and "since no safe blood lead level in children has been identified,

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4212-518: The capsid protein, C, encloses the RNA strands into immature virions. The rest of the virus is assembled along the endoplasmic reticulum and through the Golgi apparatus , and results in non-infectious immature virions. The E protein is then glycosylated and prM is cleaved by furin , a host cell protease, into the M protein, thereby producing an infectious mature virion. The mature viruses are then secreted out of

4293-408: The cell through clathrin-mediated endocytosis . As a result of endocytosis, WNV enters the cell within an endosome . The acidity of the endosome catalyzes the fusion of the endosomal and viral membranes, allowing the genome to be released into the cytoplasm. Translation of the positive-sense single-stranded RNA occurs at the endoplasmic reticulum ; the RNA is translated into a polyprotein which

4374-415: The cell through membrane fusion . The outer protein shell is covered by a host-derived lipid membrane , the viral envelope . The flavivirus lipid membrane has been found to contain cholesterol and phosphatidylserine , but other elements of the membrane have yet to be identified. The lipid membrane has many roles in viral infection , including acting as signaling molecules and enhancing entry into

4455-437: The cell. WNV is one of the Japanese encephalitis antigenic serocomplex of viruses, together with Japanese encephalitis virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus , Saint Louis encephalitis virus and some other flaviviruses. Studies of phylogenetic lineages have determined that WNV emerged as a distinct virus around 1000 years ago. This initial virus developed into two distinct lineages. Lineage 1 and its multiple profiles

4536-430: The cell. Cholesterol, in particular, plays an integral part in WNV entering a host cell. The two viral envelope proteins, E and M, are inserted into the membrane. The RNA genome is bound to capsid (C) proteins, which are 105 amino-acid residues long, to form the nucleocapsid . The capsid proteins are one of the first proteins created in an infected cell; the capsid protein is a structural protein whose main purpose

4617-490: The developing brain through the immature blood–brain barrier". "Lead is associated with a wide range of toxicity in children across a very broad band of exposures, down to the lowest blood lead concentrations yet studied, both in animals and people. These toxic effects extend from acute, clinically obvious, symptomatic poisoning at high levels of exposure down to subclinical (but still very damaging) effects at lower levels. Lead poisoning can affect virtually every organ system in

4698-410: The effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance. Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out. Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by "political content"; he demanded to know the political leanings of

4779-415: The efficacy of masks 75 percent of the time, despite only 30 percent of studies testing masks, and less than 15 percent having “statistically significant results.” Researchers said that political involvement and lack of accountability by outside experts unaffiliated with the CDC could influence the journal’s ability to evaluate scientific data objectively. West Nile virus West Nile virus ( WNV )

4860-401: The evidence that these effects appear to be irreversible, underscores the critical importance of primary prevention." The most sensitive populations are infants, children, and pregnant women. A child can drink a glass of water containing lead and absorb 50% of it. An adult might only retain 10% of the lead in that water. And once the lead is in the child's body, it reaches the brain through

4941-474: The highest water lead levels". It notes that 10 μg/dL was "CDC's BLL of concern for children" since 1991. The report also claimed that the average levels were sinking with time. On the other hand, the report found some cases of children with BLLs > 5 μg/dL; and also stated that actually "no safe BLL has been identified". Therefore, the report recommends that efforts should be made to eliminate lead in children's blood entirely, and in particular, that

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5022-417: The industrial revolution. At the end of the late 20th century, BLL measurements from remote human populations ranged from 0.8 to 3.2 μg/dL. Children in populations adjacent to industrial centers in developing countries often have average BLL measurements above 25 μg/dL. In the United States, the average blood level for children aged 1–5 years fell from 15.2 μg/dL in 1976–1980 to 0.83 μg/dL in 2011–2016,

5103-567: The medical literature (June 5, 1981). Los Angeles-based general practitioner Joel Weisman and immunologist Michael S. Gottlieb of the UCLA Medical Center had encountered a series of gay male patients with symptoms that appeared to be immune system disorders including significant loss of weight and swollen lymph nodes , accompanied by fever and rashes, in addition to two patients with chronic diarrhea, depressed white blood cell counts and fungal infections . Gottlieb diagnosed these and

5184-425: The most common cause of infection in humans is by being bitten by an infected mosquito. Other modes of transmission include blood transfusion, organ transplantation, breast-feeding, transplacental transmission, and laboratory acquisition. These alternative modes of transmission are extremely rare. Prevention efforts against WNV mainly focus on preventing human contact with and being bitten by infected mosquitoes. This

5265-410: The not fully developed blood brain barrier. The body removes lead from blood and stores it in bone, but in children it subsequently leaves the bone more readily compared to adults. "Lead that has accumulated in a woman's bones is removed from her bones and passes freely from mother to child; maternal and fetal blood lead levels are virtually identical. Once in the fetal circulation, lead readily enters

5346-570: The phasing out of leaded gasoline in China, blood lead levels of children in that country now appear to be associated with coal consumption. "Coal consumption fly ash is a dominant source of lead exposure to children in Shanghai." As of 2009, coal combustion was considered to be an important source of Pb air pollution in China, the eastern U.S., and to some extent, in Europe. Exposure to lead occurs through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Lead enters

5427-796: The reference. As blood lead levels slowly decline in response to such action, the reference will also decline. CDC will recalculate a new reference every four years. Prior to the industrial revolution human BLL is estimated to have been far less than it is today. Bone lead measurements from two Native American populations living on the Pacific coast and the Colorado River between 1000 and 1300 A.D. show that BLLs would have been approximately 0.016 μg/dL. The World Health Organization and others interpret these measurements to be broadly representative of human preindustrial BLL. Contemporary human BLLs in remote locations are estimated to be 0.8 and 3.2 μg/dL in

5508-403: The risk for WNV. Similarly, rainfall may also drive mosquito replication rates and affect the seasonality and geographic variations of the virus. Studies show an association between heavy precipitation and higher incidence of reported WNV. Likewise, wind is another environmental factor that serves as a dispersal mechanism for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes have extremely wide environmental tolerances and

5589-589: The scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite. In emails to the head of CDC, Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to "hurt the president" and writing "hit pieces on the administration". On September 14, 2020, the Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis of the U.S. House of Representatives requested "transcribed interviews" with seven CDC and HHS personnel "to determine

5670-532: The scope of political interference with CDC's scientific reports and other efforts to combat the pandemic, the impact of this interference on CDC's mission, whether this interference is continuing, and the steps that Congress may need to take to stop it before more Americans die needlessly." An analysis of studies in MMWR found the agency promoted the effectiveness of masks using unreliable data with conclusions unsupported by evidence. The journal made positive findings about

5751-505: The southern and northern hemispheres, respectively. Blood lead levels 50 to 1,000 times higher than preindustrial levels are commonly measured in contemporary human populations around the world. The National Academies evaluated this issue in 1991 and confirmed that the blood lead level of the average person in the US was 300 to 500 times higher than that of pre-industrial humans. Clair Patterson originally developed techniques to measure tiny concentrations of lead in his quest to determine

5832-623: The structure of new viruses. The WNV genome is first translated into a polyprotein and later cleaved by virus and host proteases into separate proteins (i.e. NS1, C, E). Structural proteins (C, prM/M, E) are capsid, precursor membrane proteins, and envelope proteins, respectively. The structural proteins are located at the 5′ end of the genome and are cleaved into mature proteins by both host and viral proteases. Nonstructural proteins consist of NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5. These proteins mainly assist with viral replication or act as proteases. The nonstructural proteins are located near

5913-407: The study and have found no evidence of misconduct." According to Salon , there was an evident dip in critical year 2003 (when the lead in the drinking water peaked), in the data present in the CDC files, there were test results for 15,755 children in 2002, only 9,765 children in 2003, and 18,038 children in 2004, At the time, Mary Jean Brown had questioned the dip, and had gotten the answer that it

5994-511: The survival and reproduction rates of mosquitoes, suitable habitats, distribution, and abundance. Ambient temperatures drive mosquito replication rates and transmission of WNV by affecting the peak season of mosquitoes and geographic variations. For example, increased temperatures can affect the rate of virus replication, speed up the virus evolution rate, and viral transmission efficiency. Furthermore, higher winter temperatures and warmer spring may lead to larger summer mosquito populations, increasing

6075-803: The tests were prompted by EPA's lead and copper rule , while others were conducted by professor Marc Edwards , while trying to find the causes of an increased rate of pinhole leaks in copper water pipes. He found some rather high values in a few households, sometimes exceeding 1250 PPM. From 2002 on the matter started to be noted by news media. Lead is well known to have toxic effects, especially for embryos and small children. Even in small doses, lead poisoning may lead to permanent intelligence deficiencies and concentration difficulties. On March 30, 2004, an "MMWR dispatch", Blood Lead Levels in Residents of Homes with Elevated Lead in Tap Water – District of Columbia, 2004

6156-643: The time of the original report. This notice has been recognized as the first published report marking the official start of the AIDS pandemic and as "the first report on AIDS in the medical literature". Between 2001 and 2003, various tests showed that the lead content in drinking water in Washington DC more that 10% of the tests were higher than 15 ppb ( parts per billion ), which was the "action level" fixed by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for stagnant first draw water, and not indicative of typical usage. Some of

6237-519: The virus: they do not usually develop a high enough level of virus in the blood ( viremia ) to infect another mosquito feeding on them and carry on the transmission cycle; some birds are also dead-end hosts. In the normal rural or enzootic transmission cycle, the virus alternates between the bird reservoir and the mosquito vector. It can also be transmitted between birds via direct contact, by eating an infected bird carcass or by drinking infected water. Vertical transmission between female and offspring

6318-474: Was due to a private laboratory not having reported the low values they had found. She had accepted the answer. Salon also claimed that the CDC had found a link between lead pipes and high childhood blood lead levels in the district in 2007, but had not publicized the study. In 2009, the United States House of Representatives ' Science and Technology Committee opened a congressional investigation into

6399-434: Was made available on the MMWR web site. It was then published by CDC as "MMWR Weekly, April 2, 2004 / 53(12); 268–270". Its principal author was Mary Jean Brown , who was the head of the lead poisoning branch of CDC. The report "summarizes the results of the preliminary investigations, which indicated that the elevated water lead levels might have contributed to a small increase in blood lead levels (BLLs)". The report describes

6480-477: Was strongly criticized, by Marc Edwards , some news media, and ultimately by the United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology . Marc Edwards initiated a study, which included investigating health aspects. At first, he was sponsored by EPA; but when they interrupted their support, he financed it out of his own pocket. He claimed that this study, employing raw data also available to

6561-472: Was the first nonhuman primate to contract WNV. Both the American and Israeli strains are marked by high mortality rates in infected avian populations; the presence of dead birds—especially Corvidae —can be an early indicator of the arrival of the virus. The natural hosts for WNV are birds and mosquitoes. Over 300 different species of bird have been shown to be infected with the virus. Some birds, including

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