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79-411: This integration of four functions into a single fuze reduces the logistics and cost to support mortar crews on the battlefield. A typical mortar firing procedure is for a squad leader to select a target and call for one of the four fuze settings. A gunner sights the mortar onto the target and an ammunition bearer sets the fuze. An assistant gunner drops the shell into the tube upon a command to fire from

158-522: A metrology agency, the Bureau of Standards was directed by Herbert Hoover to set up divisions to develop commercial standards for materials and products. Some of these standards were for products intended for government use, but product standards also affected private-sector consumption. Quality standards were developed for products including some types of clothing, automobile brake systems and headlamps, antifreeze , and electrical safety. During World War I ,

237-470: A neutron science user facility: the NIST Center for Neutron Research (NCNR). The NCNR provides scientists access to a variety of neutron scattering instruments, which they use in many research fields (materials science, fuel cells, biotechnology, etc.). The SURF III Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility is a source of synchrotron radiation , in continuous operation since 1961. SURF III now serves as

316-569: A NIST team as part of a DARPA competition. In September 2013, both The Guardian and The New York Times reported that NIST allowed the National Security Agency (NSA) to insert a cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator called Dual EC DRBG into NIST standard SP 800-90 that had a kleptographic backdoor that the NSA can use to covertly predict the future outputs of this pseudorandom number generator thereby allowing

395-665: A combination of vacuum tubes and solid-state diode logic. About the same time the Standards Western Automatic Computer , was built at the Los Angeles office of the NBS by Harry Huskey and used for research there. A mobile version, DYSEAC , was built for the Signal Corps in 1954. Due to a changing mission, the "National Bureau of Standards" became the "National Institute of Standards and Technology" in 1988. Following

474-485: A draft of the CSF 2.0 for public comment through November 4, 2023. NIST decided to update the framework to make it more applicable to small and medium size enterprises that use the framework, as well as to accommodate the constantly changing nature of cybersecurity. In August 2024, NIST released a final set of encryption tools designed to withstand the attack of a quantum computer. These post-quantum encryption standards secure

553-533: A program to provide metrology services for United States scientific and commercial users. A laboratory site was constructed in Washington, DC , and instruments were acquired from the national physical laboratories of Europe. In addition to weights and measures, the Bureau developed instruments for electrical units and for measurement of light. In 1905 a meeting was called that would be the first "National Conference on Weights and Measures". Initially conceived as purely

632-683: A satellite site. Initiated in May 1970, this acquisition was a move by the Army to consolidate AMC’s nuclear weapons effects research and test activities. As a result, the U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Research and Development Command’s Electromagnetic Effects Laboratory was relocated from Fort Belvoir Engineer Proving Ground to Woodbridge in September 1971. As a satellite facility of HDL, the Woodbridge Research Facility primarily conducted investigations into

711-465: A third of the models functioned properly during the tests, the experiment demonstrated that Diamond and Hinman’s idea had potential. Diamond and his team spent the next several months working on the fuze’s electronic circuits and safety mechanisms. In May 1942, the U.S. Army made its first urgent request for a proximity fuze for the new 4.5-inch airborne rocket against the German Luftwaffe . Once

790-643: A tropical rainstorm while en route to the target. The M734 fuze was developed at the Harry Diamond Laboratories (HDL) for the 60 mm lightweight company mortar system, which now is managed by the Armament Research Development and Engineering Center ( ARDEC ) Fuze Division. It was determined to be suitable for army use in July 1977 and accorded type classification standard. To demonstrate readiness for transition into full rate production by

869-644: A user-accessible cleanroom nanomanufacturing facility. This "NanoFab" is equipped with tools for lithographic patterning and imaging (e.g., electron microscopes and atomic force microscopes ). NIST has seven standing committees: As part of its mission, NIST supplies industry, academia, government, and other users with over 1,300 Standard Reference Materials (SRMs). These artifacts are certified as having specific characteristics or component content, used as calibration standards for measuring equipment and procedures, quality control benchmarks for industrial processes, and experimental control samples. NIST publishes

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948-543: A wide range of electronic information, from confidential email messages to e-commerce transactions that propel the modern economy. Four scientific researchers at NIST have been awarded Nobel Prizes for work in physics : William Daniel Phillips in 1997, Eric Allin Cornell in 2001, John Lewis Hall in 2005 and David Jeffrey Wineland in 2012, which is the largest number for any US government laboratory not accounting for ubiquitous government contracts to state institutions and

1027-545: Is a basic safety requirement called "dual-safing". An unprecedented third safety factor incorporated as a product improvement in the M734A1 fuze was to delay the electrical arming of the PROX, NSB, and IMP settings beyond 100 meters out to the highest point of shell flight. The wind stream in flight provides both the mechanical power needed to arm the S&;A and the electrical power needed for

1106-469: Is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce whose mission is to promote American innovation and industrial competitiveness. NIST's activities are organized into physical science laboratory programs that include nanoscale science and technology , engineering , information technology , neutron research, material measurement, and physical measurement. From 1901 to 1988, the agency

1185-632: Is now the Handbook 44 since 1918 and began publication under the current name in 1949. The 2010 edition conforms to the concept of the primary use of the SI (metric) measurements recommended by the Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 . NIST is developing government-wide identity document standards for federal employees and contractors to prevent unauthorized persons from gaining access to government buildings and computer systems. In 2002,

1264-575: Is providing practical guidance and tools to better prepare facility owners, contractors, architects, engineers, emergency responders, and regulatory authorities to respond to future disasters. The investigation portion of the response plan was completed with the release of the final report on 7 World Trade Center on November 20, 2008. The final report on the WTC Towers—including 30 recommendations for improving building and occupant safety—was released on October 26, 2005. NIST works in conjunction with

1343-502: Is safe to handle, however, because the two detonators are mounted in a safety and arming (S&A) assembly that holds them 180 degrees out of alignment with the explosive lead and booster. The events required to rotate the explosive train into alignment and generate power for the fuze electronics cannot be accomplished by accident or deliberately by a vandal because three actions difficult to simulate must be applied in rapid succession: Axial acceleration and wind stream forces combine to arm

1422-610: The Air Defense Experimental Establishment conceived of a proximity fuze that used radio waves to sense the proximity of the target. While Butement and his team were able to construct and crudely test a prototype fuze in 1940, the high production demands of World War II ultimately stalled its development. As a result, the British decided to share their research on the project with the United States in hopes that

1501-560: The Biden administration began plans to create a U.S. AI Safety Institute within NIST to coordinate AI safety matters. According to The Washington Post , NIST is considered "notoriously underfunded and understaffed", which could present an obstacle to these efforts. NIST, known between 1901 and 1988 as the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), is a measurement standards laboratory , also known as

1580-456: The Constitution of the United States , ratified in 1789, granted these powers to the new Congress: "The Congress shall have power ... To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures". In January 1790, President George Washington , in his first annual message to Congress , said, "Uniformity in the currency, weights, and measures of

1659-729: The Handbook 44 each year after the annual meeting of the National Conference on Weights and Measures (NCWM). Each edition is developed through cooperation of the Committee on Specifications and Tolerances of the NCWM and the Weights and Measures Division (WMD) of NIST. The purpose of the book is a partial fulfillment of the statutory responsibility for "cooperation with the states in securing uniformity of weights and measures laws and methods of inspection". NIST has been publishing various forms of what

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1738-545: The National Construction Safety Team Act mandated NIST to conduct an investigation into the collapse of the World Trade Center buildings 1 and 2 and the 47-story 7 World Trade Center. The "World Trade Center Collapse Investigation", directed by lead investigator Shyam Sunder, covered three aspects, including a technical building and fire safety investigation to study the factors contributing to

1817-543: The National Medal of Science has been awarded to NIST researchers Cahn (1998) and Wineland (2007). Other notable people who have worked at NBS or NIST include: Since 1989, the director of NIST has been a Presidential appointee and is confirmed by the United States Senate , and since that year the average tenure of NIST directors has fallen from 11 years to 2 years in duration. Since the 2011 reorganization of NIST,

1896-717: The September 11, 2001 attacks, under the National Construction Safety Team Act (NCST), NIST conducted the official investigation into the collapse of the World Trade Center buildings. Following the 2021 Surfside condominium building collapse , NIST sent engineers to the site to investigate the cause of the collapse. In 2019, NIST launched a program named NIST on a Chip to decrease the size of instruments from lab machines to chip size. Applications include aircraft testing, communication with satellites for navigation purposes, and temperature and pressure. In 2023,

1975-812: The Technical Guidelines Development Committee of the Election Assistance Commission to develop the Voluntary Voting System Guidelines for voting machines and other election technology. In February 2014 NIST published the NIST Cybersecurity Framework that serves as voluntary guidance for organizations to manage and reduce cybersecurity risk. It was later amended and Version 1.1 was published in April 2018. Executive Order 13800, Strengthening

2054-806: The Treaty of the Meter , which established the International Bureau of Weights and Measures under the control of an international committee elected by the General Conference on Weights and Measures . NIST is headquartered in Gaithersburg, Maryland , and operates a facility in Boulder, Colorado , which was dedicated by President Eisenhower in 1954. NIST's activities are organized into laboratory programs and extramural programs. Effective October 1, 2010, NIST

2133-621: The proximity fuze and the standardized airframe used originally for Project Pigeon , and shortly afterwards the autonomously radar-guided Bat anti-ship guided bomb and the Kingfisher family of torpedo-carrying missiles. In 1948, financed by the United States Air Force, the Bureau began design and construction of SEAC , the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer. The computer went into operation in May 1950 using

2212-625: The 1960s, the U.S. Army made plans to relocate HDL after a joint Army and Navy study group recommended that the laboratory be moved to a 137-acre site adjacent to the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory in Adelphi, Maryland . Consisting mostly of undeveloped farmland, the site was acquired by the U.S. Army in 1969, and construction of HDL’s new facilities began shortly afterwards. In July 1971, HDL also acquired AMC’s Woodbridge Research Facility along with roughly 642 acres of land in Woodbridge, Virginia to use as

2291-484: The Armament Munitions and Chemical Command (AMCCOM), ARDEC/HDL managed the first production for war reserves as well as the construction of automated initial production facilities (IPF) for mobilization readiness. HDL awarded three competitive contracts in 1978/79: Eastman Kodak (Rochester, NY) for the fuze assembly and IPF, Motorola (Scottsdale, AZ) for the amplifier assembly and IPF, and Alinabal (Milford, CT.) for

2370-623: The Army’s lead laboratory in nuclear survivability studies and operated the Aurora Pulsed Radiation Simulator , the world’s largest full-threat gamma radiation simulator. In 1992, HDL was disestablished, and its mission, personnel, and facilities were incorporated into the newly created U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL). As part of this transition, the Army designated the HDL building as the site of ARL’s new headquarters. The installation

2449-1405: The Aurora Simulator had conducted a total of 287 numbered tests. HDL also operated the Army’s largest facility for designing, fabricating, and testing integrated circuits. HDL consisted of four specialized laboratories, each headed by its own director: the Advanced Research Laboratory, the Systems Research Laboratory, the Research and Development Laboratory, and the Components Research Laboratory. The Advanced Research Laboratory specialized in exploratory systems, special components, optical systems , and physical research. The Systems Research Laboratory specialized in radio systems, nuclear vulnerability and countermeasures, microwave components, systems feasibility, fluid amplifiers , applied physics , and computation and analysis. The Research and Development Laboratory specialized in projectile fuzes, missile fuzes, and heavy artillery fuzes as well as limited warfare weapons, electronic timers, safety devices, parachute opening devices , fluid systems, large radar systems, telemetry , air defense , and missile trajectory measuring systems. Lastly,

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2528-652: The Bureau established the Ordnance Development Division in December 1942. The new division initially consisted of 200 people working on proximity fuzes for rockets and bombs with Diamond acting as the division chief. By the end of the war, the size of the division had doubled. After the war, a large laboratory complex designed to house the Bureau’s Ordnance Development Division, Ordnance Electronics Division, and Electromechanical Division

2607-406: The Bureau worked on multiple problems related to war production, even operating its own facility to produce optical glass when European supplies were cut off. Between the wars, Harry Diamond of the Bureau developed a blind approach radio aircraft landing system. During World War II, military research and development was carried out, including development of radio propagation forecast methods,

2686-539: The Carnegie Institution, which later moved to the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in 1942, took on the development of the radio proximity fuze for rotating projectiles. Meanwhile, the development of the radio proximity fuze for non-rotating projectiles was assigned to Harry Diamond and Wilford Hinman Jr. at the NBS and overseen by Alexander Ellett of NDRC. Diamond, who

2765-419: The Components Research Laboratory specialized in materials and techniques, microminiaturization , tubes, and power supplies. The technologies developed by these laboratories, if applicable, would be prepared for mass production by HDL’s Engineering Division, which was responsible for quality assurance, test engineering, value analysis, and industrial support. As an early authority on electronic fuze technology,

2844-693: The Cybersecurity of Federal Networks and Critical Infrastructure , made the Framework mandatory for U.S. federal government agencies. An extension to the NIST Cybersecurity Framework is the Cybersecurity Maturity Model (CMMC) which was introduced in 2019 (though the origin of CMMC began with Executive Order 13556). It emphasizes the importance of implementing Zero-trust architecture (ZTA) which focuses on protecting resources over

2923-609: The Department of Defense. As part of the transition, the majority of the Harry Diamond Ordnance Laboratory was transferred to the U.S. Army in September 1953 and renamed the Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratory (DOFL). Despite the change in command, however, the laboratory’s operations remained at the original building complex in Washington, D.C. Hinman Jr., who had succeeded Diamond as the head of

3002-692: The EC-DRBG algorithm from the NIST SP 800-90 standard. In addition to these journals, NIST (and the National Bureau of Standards before it) has a robust technical reports publishing arm. NIST technical reports are published in several dozen series, which cover a wide range of topics, from computer technology to construction to aspects of standardization including weights, measures and reference data. In addition to technical reports, NIST scientists publish many journal and conference papers each year; an database of these, along with more recent technical reports, can be found on

3081-628: The Harry Diamond Laboratories contributed to the development of not only the proximity fuze but many other fuze systems including the following: HDL also designed and developed fuzes for the following missiles: HDL either led or was involved in the development of numerous technologies, including the following: 39°01′40″N 76°57′50″W  /  39.027860°N 76.963809°W  / 39.027860; -76.963809 National Institute of Standards and Technology The National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST )

3160-481: The M734A1 fuze manufactured by L-3 FOS (Formerly KDI). Harry Diamond Laboratories The Harry Diamond Laboratories (HDL) was a research facility under the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) and later the U.S. Army . It conducted research and development in electronic components and devices and was at one point the largest electronics research and development laboratory in the U.S. Army. HDL also acted as

3239-531: The NIST cryptography process because of its recognized expertise. NIST is also required by statute to consult with the NSA." Recognizing the concerns expressed, the agency reopened the public comment period for the SP800-90 publications, promising that "if vulnerabilities are found in these or any other NIST standards, we will work with the cryptographic community to address them as quickly as possible". Due to public concern of this cryptovirology attack, NIST rescinded

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3318-587: The National Metrological Institute (NMI), which is a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce . The institute's official mission is to: Promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science , standards , and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve our quality of life . NIST had an operating budget for fiscal year 2007 (October 1, 2006 – September 30, 2007) of about $ 843.3 million. NIST's 2009 budget

3397-534: The U.S. could complete the technology. In September 1940, Sir John Cockcroft delivered all available information about the radio proximity fuze to the newly formed National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) as part of the Tizard Mission . The chairman of NDRC, Vannevar Bush , appointed Merle Tuve , the director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution for Science , to lead

3476-402: The U.S. research on proximity fuzes. By November 1940, Tuve recognized that two types of radio proximity fuzes were needed: one for rotating projectiles and one for non-rotating projectiles. The former was sought by the U.S. Navy for anti-aircraft guns, while the latter was best suited for U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force weapons such as bombs, rockets, and mortars. The team headed by Tuve at

3555-508: The US national standard for source-based radiometry throughout the generalized optical spectrum. All NASA -borne, extreme-ultraviolet observation instruments have been calibrated at SURF since the 1970s, and SURF is used for the measurement and characterization of systems for extreme ultraviolet lithography . The Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology (CNST) performs research in nanotechnology , both through internal research efforts and by running

3634-481: The United States is an object of great importance, and will, I am persuaded, be duly attended to." On October 25, 1791, Washington again appealed Congress: A uniformity of the weights and measures of the country is among the important objects submitted to you by the Constitution and if it can be derived from a standard at once invariable and universal, must be no less honorable to the public council than conducive to

3713-541: The alternator assembly and IPF. After successful first article inspection and production lot acceptance tests, transition was completed in March 1983. AMCCOM performed all procurements for stockpile with technical support by ARDEC. The Army Mortar Plan issued in 1985 expanded use of the M734 fuze to 60 mm, 81 mm, and 120 mm mortars. Improvements in the fuze reliability and performance by ARDEC engineers led to production of

3792-509: The country. NIST publishes the Handbook 44 that provides the "Specifications, tolerances, and other technical requirements for weighing and measuring devices". The Congress of 1866 made use of the metric system in commerce a legally protected activity through the passage of Metric Act of 1866 . On May 20, 1875, 17 out of 20 countries signed a document known as the Metric Convention or

3871-491: The dimensions for the fuze were decided, Diamond’s team completed the fuze design in 2 days. After testing was conducted in June 1942, NBS constructed more than a thousand fuzes based on this design using the small-scale production lines in its model shops. The U.S. Army later produced almost 400,000 of NBS’s fuzes in 1943 and an additional 400,000 were made before the end of the war. Due to the expansion of fuze-related activities at NBS,

3950-488: The director also holds the title of Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology. Fifteen individuals have officially held the position (in addition to four acting directors who have served on a temporary basis). NIST holds patents on behalf of the Federal government of the United States , with at least one of them being custodial to protect public domain use, such as one for a Chip-scale atomic clock , developed by

4029-632: The fall of 1975. In 1980, the Army acquired the Blossom Point Field Test Facility in Charles County, Maryland , and assigned it to HDL as its second satellite installation. Consisting of 20 buildings, the Blossom Point facility was used by HDL to conduct field tests on HDL-developed fuzes, explosive and pyrotechnic devices, and electronic telemetry systems. Construction of HDL’s Adelphi complex reached completion in 1983, by which point

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4108-484: The feasibility of a proximity fuze, a device that would detonate an explosive charge only when it approached the immediate vicinity of its target. At the time, conventional artillery and antiaircraft shells very rarely hit their target, especially a moving one, because their detonation either required direct contact or relied on accurate predictions with an altimeter or a timer set at launch. In 1939, British researchers William Butement, Edward Shire, and Amherst Thomson at

4187-453: The following meanings for detonation height: In all four settings, the high explosive in the mortar shell is detonated by a cascading explosive train of four increasing energies within the fuze. These are the Microdet electric detonator, the explosive lead, the explosive booster, and the delay primer assembly functioning as follows: Fuzes assembled by the manufacturer are preset to PRX and stockpiled on mortar shells for immediate use. The fuze

4266-414: The fuze 100 meters or more from the launcher. This mechanical arming is accomplished by a torsion spring rotating the detonators 180 degrees into an explosive train alignment as soon as the spring is unlocked by the acceleration forces depressing a zig-zag setback device and the wind stream forces unscrewing a jackscrew locking device. This delay in mechanical arming after two independent features of gunfire

4345-609: The fuze electronics. There is a system of components used in the M734 to capture and regulate air flow within the fuze and convert a portion of the air power to mechanical and electrical power before exiting the fuze. Since arming is required to occur after a flight of 100 meters for three mortars that have a wide range in launch velocities, the rpm that releases the jackscrew at the slowest launch velocity must increase in direct proportion to any increase in launch velocity. The turbine, however, will tend to spin faster than desired, so, to prevent early arming, three governors are used to reduce

4424-437: The major causes of this organizational change was a congressional report by the Kelly Committee following the AD-X2 battery additive controversy during the early 1950s. The Kelly Committee, which was formed by the NBS Visiting Committee and the National Academy of Sciences at the request of Commerce Secretary Charles Sinclair Weeks , advised NBS to return to non-military research and testing and transfer its weapons programs to

4503-409: The national physical laboratory for the United States. Southard had previously sponsored a bill for metric conversion of the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt appointed Samuel W. Stratton as the first director. The budget for the first year of operation was $ 40,000. The Bureau took custody of the copies of the kilogram and meter bars that were the standards for US measures, and set up

4582-429: The network perimeter. ZTA utilizes zero trust principles which include "never trust, always verify", "assume breach" and "least privileged access" to safeguard users, assets, and resources. Since ZTA holds no implicit trust to users within the network perimeter, authentication and authorization are performed at every stage of a digital transaction. This reduces the risk of unauthorized access to resources. NIST released

4661-404: The newly constructed research complex in Adelphi, Maryland. HDL employees were moved to Adelphi as part of a three-phase relocation program as different sections of the facility underwent construction. In November 1973, about 500 of the total employees were moved to the H-shaped Adelphi complex. The second phase took place in 1974 with about 400 employees, and the remaining 500 workers were moved in

4740-420: The physical sciences. By the 1980s, the Harry Diamond Laboratories was the largest electronics R&D laboratory in the U.S. Army and represented the Army’s lead laboratory for the study of nuclear effects. Since 1971, the facility housed and operated the Aurora Pulsed Radiation Simulator , which was the world’s largest gamma radiation simulator at the time. Before it was decommissioned and disassembled in 1996,

4819-417: The private sector. All four were recognized for their work related to laser cooling of atoms, which is directly related to the development and advancement of the atomic clock. In 2011, Dan Shechtman was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work on quasicrystals in the Metallurgy Division from 1982 to 1984. In addition, John Werner Cahn was awarded the 2011 Kyoto Prize for Materials Science, and

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4898-423: The probable cause of the collapses of the WTC Towers (WTC 1 and 2) and WTC 7. NIST also established a research and development program to provide the technical basis for improved building and fire codes, standards, and practices, and a dissemination and technical assistance program to engage leaders of the construction and building community in implementing proposed changes to practices, standards, and codes. NIST also

4977-490: The program after Diamond’s death, became DOFL’s first technical director after it moved to the Army. As an element of the Army’s Ordnance Corps, DOFL focused its research and development efforts on proximity fuzes and other related items. Areas that received attention included printed circuits , microminiaturization , casting resins , flow and temperature measuring systems, reserve power supplies, high-resolution radar, air navigation systems, and telemetering equipment. DOFL

5056-428: The public convenience. In 1821, President John Quincy Adams declared, "Weights and measures may be ranked among the necessities of life to every individual of human society.". Nevertheless, it was not until 1838 that the United States government adopted a uniform set of standards. From 1830 until 1901, the role of overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures, which

5135-474: The simulated effects of electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear detonation on electronic systems. Following the cessation of nuclear detonation testing, the simulations produced by the facility enabled the Army to test the vulnerability of tactical systems to the effects of nuclear attack and gather data for the development of hardening techniques. In 1973, operations at HDL were officially moved from Washington, D.C. at Connecticut Ave. and Van Ness St. to

5214-406: The site housed a total of 22 structures. In 1992, HDL was among the seven Army laboratories that were consolidated to form the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) following the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) commission in 1991. In addition, the Adelphi research complex was renamed the Adelphi Laboratory Center and became the headquarters for ARL. While HDL’s Blossom Point satellite facility

5293-419: The spin: Once the air flows from the tips, the air outlet directs the exhaust into the atmosphere at an angle oblique to the external wind stream. The resulting turbulence degrades the accuracy of flight toward the target, so the exhaust is directed onto a vertical metal fin that guides the flow into the external wind stream. The performance of the turbine alternator is unaffected if the mortar shell encounters

5372-400: The squad leader. Tools are not required to install or set the fuze. It is adjusted by hand, even with Arctic mittens, simply by rotating the top of the fuze clockwise until a three-letter engraving is above an index line. Additionally, the setting can be changed any number of times without causing damage to the fuze. The four engravings around the circumference of metal housing of the fuze have

5451-431: The standard by NSA). NIST responded to the allegations, stating that "NIST works to publish the strongest cryptographic standards possible" and that it uses "a transparent, public process to rigorously vet our recommended standards". The agency stated that "there has been some confusion about the standards development process and the role of different organizations in it...The National Security Agency (NSA) participates in

5530-415: The surreptitious decryption of data. Both papers report that the NSA worked covertly to get its own version of SP 800-90 approved for worldwide use in 2006. The whistle-blowing document states that "eventually, NSA became the sole editor". The reports confirm suspicions and technical grounds publicly raised by cryptographers in 2007 that the EC-DRBG could contain a kleptographic backdoor (perhaps placed in

5609-456: Was $ 992 million, and it also received $ 610 million as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act . NIST employs about 2,900 scientists, engineers, technicians, and support and administrative personnel. About 1,800 NIST associates (guest researchers and engineers from American companies and foreign countries) complement the staff. In addition, NIST partners with 1,400 manufacturing specialists and staff at nearly 350 affiliated centers around

5688-431: Was also responsible for determining the susceptibility of ordnance electronics materiel to nuclear radiation and investigating methods of radiation hardening . When the U.S. Army Materiel Command (AMC) was established during the 1962 Army reorganization, DOFL was assigned directly to AMC as a corporate laboratory. The following year, DOFL had its name officially changed to the Harry Diamond Laboratories (HDL). During

5767-433: Was established in 1946. Meanwhile, Diamond continued to lead the Ordnance Development Division until his death in 1948. In honor of his work, the laboratory complex was renamed to the Harry Diamond Ordnance Laboratory in 1949. NBS underwent significant restructuring and downsizing in the years following World War II. During this time period, several wartime programs managed by the Bureau were relocated elsewhere. One of

5846-441: Was named in honor of pioneer radio engineer and inventor Harry Diamond , who led the Ordnance Development Division during World War II . Diamond contributed greatly to the fundamental concept and design of proximity fuzes . The origins of the Harry Diamond Laboratories trace back to the development of the radio proximity fuze at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). During the 1930s, British military researchers investigated

5925-484: Was named the National Bureau of Standards . The Articles of Confederation , ratified by the colonies in 1781, provided: The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective states—fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States. Article 1, section 8, of

6004-690: Was part of the Survey of the Coast—renamed the United States Coast Survey in 1836 and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878—in the United States Department of the Treasury . In 1901, in response to a bill proposed by Congressman James H. Southard (R, Ohio), the National Bureau of Standards was founded with the mandate to provide standard weights and measures, and to serve as

6083-619: Was realigned by reducing the number of NIST laboratory units from ten to six. NIST Laboratories include: Extramural programs include: NIST's Boulder laboratories are best known for NIST‑F1 , which houses an atomic clock . NIST‑F1 serves as the source of the nation's official time. From its measurement of the natural resonance frequency of cesium —which defines the second —NIST broadcasts time signals via longwave radio station WWVB near Fort Collins , Colorado, and shortwave radio stations WWV and WWVH , located near Fort Collins and Kekaha, Hawaii , respectively. NIST also operates

6162-558: Was the chief of NBS’s radio and photoelectric fuze groups, determined that utilizing the Doppler effect would provide the best results for a proximity fuze in a non-rotating projectile. Diamond and Hinman subsequently developed a diode detector system that activated when the amplitude of the reflected radio waves exceeded a predetermined value. In April and May 1941, Diamond’s group tested a series of crude box models based on this principle in successful bomb drops against water targets. While only

6241-546: Was transferred under ARL, the Woodbridge satellite facility was ultimately closed. At its inception, the Harry Diamond Ordnance Laboratory was originally established to further advance U.S. research and development in electronic fuzing for rockets, mortars, artillery, and missiles. Over time, the laboratory’s principal activities expanded significantly to include other ordnance specialties such as radar technology, integrated circuits , nuclear survivability, and basic research in

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