The Hofmeister series or lyotropic series is a classification of ions in order of their lyotrophic properties, which is the ability to salt out or salt in proteins. The effects of these changes were first worked out by Franz Hofmeister , who studied the effects of cations and anions on the solubility of proteins .
105-435: An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electricity through the movement of ions , but not through the movement of electrons . This includes most soluble salts , acids , and bases , dissolved in a polar solvent like water. Upon dissolving, the substance separates into cations and anions , which disperse uniformly throughout the solvent. Solid-state electrolytes also exist. In medicine and sometimes in chemistry,
210-451: A Brønsted acid to a Brønsted base and in essence are protic ionic liquids in the molten state , have found to be promising solid-state proton conductors for fuel cells . Examples include 1,2,4-triazolium perfluorobutanesulfonate and imidazolium methanesulfonate . Electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge . Electricity
315-455: A conductor 's surface, since otherwise there would be a force along the surface of the conductor that would move the charge carriers to even the potential across the surface. The electric field was formally defined as the force exerted per unit charge, but the concept of potential allows for a more useful and equivalent definition: the electric field is the local gradient of the electric potential. Usually expressed in volts per metre,
420-461: A force on each other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity. A lightweight ball suspended by a fine thread can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth. If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart. Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other. However, if one ball
525-737: A magnetic field . In most applications, Coulomb's law determines the force acting on an electric charge. Electric potential is the work done to move an electric charge from one point to another within an electric field, typically measured in volts . Electricity plays a central role in many modern technologies, serving in electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment, and in electronics dealing with electrical circuits involving active components such as vacuum tubes , transistors , diodes and integrated circuits , and associated passive interconnection technologies. The study of electrical phenomena dates back to antiquity, with theoretical understanding progressing slowly until
630-604: A marathon or triathlon ) who do not consume electrolytes risk dehydration (or hyponatremia ). A home-made electrolyte drink can be made by using water, sugar and salt in precise proportions . It is important to include glucose (sugar) to utilise the co-transport mechanism of sodium and glucose. Commercial preparations are also available for both human and veterinary use. Electrolytes are commonly found in fruit juices , sports drinks, milk, nuts, and many fruits and vegetables (whole or in juice form) (e.g., potatoes, avocados ). When electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and
735-409: A steady state current, but instead blocks it. The inductor is a conductor, usually a coil of wire, that stores energy in a magnetic field in response to the current through it. When the current changes, the magnetic field does too, inducing a voltage between the ends of the conductor. The induced voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of the current. The constant of proportionality
840-429: A voltage is applied, the electrolyte will conduct electricity. Lone electrons normally cannot pass through the electrolyte; instead, a chemical reaction occurs at the cathode , providing electrons to the electrolyte. Another reaction occurs at the anode , consuming electrons from the electrolyte. As a result, a negative charge cloud develops in the electrolyte around the cathode, and a positive charge develops around
945-432: A charge of Q coulombs every t seconds passing through an electric potential ( voltage ) difference of V is where Electric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry . Electricity is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (3.6 MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using electricity meters , which keep
1050-512: A common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared is useful. While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the Earth itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere. This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground . Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge and is therefore electrically uncharged—and unchargeable. Electric potential
1155-468: A current of one amp. The capacitor is a development of the Leyden jar and is a device that can store charge, and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field. It consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating dielectric layer; in practice, thin metal foils are coiled together, increasing the surface area per unit volume and therefore the capacitance . The unit of capacitance
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#17328525770441260-490: A dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm-threatened sky . A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature. He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior of the Leyden jar as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges. In 1775, Hugh Williamson reported
1365-417: A flexible lattice framework . Various additives are often applied to increase the conductivity of such systems. Solid ceramic electrolytes – ions migrate through the ceramic phase by means of vacancies or interstitials within the lattice . There are also glassy-ceramic electrolytes. Dry polymer electrolytes – differ from liquid and gel electrolytes in the sense that salt is dissolved directly into
1470-425: A large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh. The field strength is greatly affected by nearby conducting objects, and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects. This principle is exploited in the lightning conductor , the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning strike to develop there, rather than to
1575-419: A larger effect than cations , and are usually ordered as follows: This is a partial list as many more salts have been studied, which applies to cations as well. The order of cations is usually given as: When oppositely charged kosmotropic cations and anions are in solution together, they are attracted to each other, rather than to water, and the same can be said for chaotropic cations and anions. Thus,
1680-402: A millimetre per second, the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light , enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires. Current causes several observable effects, which historically were the means of recognising its presence. That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800,
1785-553: A more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used. The recognition of electromagnetism , the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in 1819–1820. Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827. Electricity and magnetism (and light) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell , in particular in his " On Physical Lines of Force " in 1861 and 1862. While
1890-425: A positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. Current defined in this manner is called conventional current . The motion of negatively charged electrons around an electric circuit , one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of
1995-891: A practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work. An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task. The components in an electric circuit can take many forms, which can include elements such as resistors , capacitors , switches , transformers and electronics . Electronic circuits contain active components , usually semiconductors , and typically exhibit non-linear behaviour, requiring complex analysis. The simplest electric components are those that are termed passive and linear : while they may temporarily store energy, they contain no sources of it, and exhibit linear responses to stimuli. The resistor
2100-406: A process now known as electrolysis . Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833. Current through a resistance causes localised heating, an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840. One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current in
2205-471: A rapidly changing one. Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit . The SI unit of power is the watt , one joule per second . Electric power, like mechanical power , is the rate of doing work , measured in watts , and represented by the letter P . The term wattage is used colloquially to mean "electric power in watts." The electric power in watts produced by an electric current I consisting of
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#17328525770442310-604: A reference protein. At high salt concentrations lysozyme protein aggregation obeys the Hofmeister series originally observed by Hofmeister in the 1870s, but at low salt concentrations electrostatic interactions rather than ion dispersion forces affect protein stability resulting in the series being reversed. However, at high concentrations of salt, the solubility of the proteins drop sharply and proteins can precipitate out, referred to as " salting out ". Ion binding to carbolylic surface groups of macromolecules can either follow
2415-485: A resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference across it. The resistance of most materials is relatively constant over a range of temperatures and currents; materials under these conditions are known as 'ohmic'. The ohm , the unit of resistance, was named in honour of Georg Ohm , and is symbolised by the Greek letter Ω. 1 Ω is the resistance that will produce a potential difference of one volt in response to
2520-595: A running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer. Unlike fossil fuels , electricity is a low entropy form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes , transistors , diodes , sensors and integrated circuits , and associated passive interconnection technologies. The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes digital switching possible, and electronics
2625-431: A scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets, energising electrons. This discovery led to
2730-568: A series of experiments to the Royal Society on the shocks delivered by the electric eel ; that same year the surgeon and anatomist John Hunter described the structure of the fish's electric organs . In 1791, Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics , demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles. Alessandro Volta 's battery, or voltaic pile , of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with
2835-510: A series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic , in contrast to minerals such as magnetite , which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating , based on
2940-682: A set of equations that could unambiguously describe the interrelationship between electric field, magnetic field, electric charge, and electric current. He could moreover prove that in a vacuum such a wave would travel at the speed of light , and thus light itself was a form of electromagnetic radiation. Maxwell's equations , which unify light, fields, and charge are one of the great milestones of theoretical physics. Hofmeister series Highly charged ions interact strongly with water, breaking hydrogen bonds and inducing electrostatic structuring of nearby water, and are thus called "structure-makers" or " kosmotropes ". Conversely, weak ions can disrupt
3045-477: A solid crystal (such as a germanium crystal) to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect. In a solid-state component, the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it. Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively charged electrons , and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes . These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics. The building material
3150-645: A type organic salts exhibiting mesophases (i.e. a state of matter intermediate between liquid and solid), in which mobile ions are orientationally or rotationally disordered while their centers are located at the ordered sites in the crystal structure. They have various forms of disorder due to one or more solid–solid phase transitions below the melting point and have therefore plastic properties and good mechanical flexibility as well as an improved electrode-electrolyte interfacial contact. In particular, protic organic ionic plastic crystals (POIPCs), which are solid protic organic salts formed by proton transfer from
3255-413: A type of highly conductive non-aqueous electrolytes and thus have found more and more applications in fuel cells and batteries. An electrolyte in a solution may be described as "concentrated" if it has a high concentration of ions, or "dilute" if it has a low concentration. If a high proportion of the solute dissociates to form free ions, the electrolyte is strong; if most of the solute does not dissociate,
Electrolyte - Misplaced Pages Continue
3360-511: A wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass. He had discovered electromagnetism , a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics. The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by electric arcing is high enough to produce electromagnetic interference , which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment. In engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). These terms refer to how
3465-448: A wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury. The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained. Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends. Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction , enabled him to state
3570-402: A wire. The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other. Charge can be measured by a number of means, an early instrument being the gold-leaf electroscope , which although still in use for classroom demonstrations, has been superseded by
3675-584: Is a scalar quantity . That is, it has only magnitude and not direction. It may be viewed as analogous to height : just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field. As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height, a set of lines marking points of equal potential (known as equipotentials ) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object. The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles. They must also lie parallel to
3780-411: Is a vector field . The study of electric fields created by stationary charges is called electrostatics . The field may be visualised by a set of imaginary lines whose direction at any point is the same as that of the field. This concept was introduced by Faraday, whose term ' lines of force ' still sometimes sees use. The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would seek to make as it
3885-452: Is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker. An electric field generally varies in space, and its strength at any one point
3990-401: Is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract each other. These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb , who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms. This discovery led to the well-known axiom: like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract . The force acts on
4095-468: Is defined as negative, and that by protons is positive. Before these particles were discovered, Benjamin Franklin had defined a positive charge as being the charge acquired by a glass rod when it is rubbed with a silk cloth. A proton by definition carries a charge of exactly 1.602 176 634 × 10 coulombs . This value is also defined as the elementary charge . No object can have a charge smaller than
4200-483: Is defined as the force (per unit charge) that would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point. The conceptual charge, termed a ' test charge ', must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of magnetic fields . As the electric field is defined in terms of force , and force is a vector , having both magnitude and direction , it follows that an electric field
4305-441: Is dependent upon the presence of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), and potassium (K). Without sufficient levels of these key electrolytes, muscle weakness or severe muscle contractions may occur. Electrolyte balance is maintained by oral, or in emergencies, intravenous (IV) intake of electrolyte-containing substances, and is regulated by hormones , in general with the kidneys flushing out excess levels. In humans, electrolyte homeostasis
Electrolyte - Misplaced Pages Continue
4410-417: Is important in the treatment of anorexia and bulimia . In science, electrolytes are one of the main components of electrochemical cells . In clinical medicine , mentions of electrolytes usually refer metonymically to the ions, and (especially) to their concentrations (in blood, serum, urine, or other fluids). Thus, mentions of electrolyte levels usually refer to the various ion concentrations, not to
4515-531: Is integral to applications spanning transport , heating , lighting , communications , and computation , making it the foundation of modern industrial society. Long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish . Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE described them as the "protectors" of all other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek , Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians . Several ancient writers, such as Pliny
4620-406: Is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere . This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821. Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury . A current was allowed through
4725-415: Is most often a crystalline semiconductor . Solid-state electronics came into its own with the emergence of transistor technology. The first working transistor, a germanium -based point-contact transistor , was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947, followed by the bipolar junction transistor in 1948. By modern convention, the charge carried by electrons
4830-403: Is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements: as its name suggests, it resists the current through it, dissipating its energy as heat. The resistance is a consequence of the motion of charge through a conductor: in metals, for example, resistance is primarily due to collisions between electrons and ions. Ohm's law is a basic law of circuit theory , stating that the current passing through
4935-524: Is regulated by hormones such as antidiuretic hormones , aldosterone and parathyroid hormones . Serious electrolyte disturbances , such as dehydration and overhydration , may lead to cardiac and neurological complications and, unless they are rapidly resolved, will result in a medical emergency . Measurement of electrolytes is a commonly performed diagnostic procedure, performed via blood testing with ion-selective electrodes or urinalysis by medical technologists . The interpretation of these values
5040-436: Is related to magnetism , both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism , as described by Maxwell's equations . Common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning , static electricity , electric heating , electric discharges and many others. The presence of either a positive or negative electric charge produces an electric field . The motion of electric charges is an electric current and produces
5145-421: Is somewhat meaningless without analysis of the clinical history and is often impossible without parallel measurements of renal function . The electrolytes measured most often are sodium and potassium. Chloride levels are rarely measured except for arterial blood gas interpretations since they are inherently linked to sodium levels. One important test conducted on urine is the specific gravity test to determine
5250-531: Is subjected to transients , such as when first energised. The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday . An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses , and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there
5355-406: Is termed the inductance . The unit of inductance is the henry , named after Joseph Henry , a contemporary of Faraday. One henry is the inductance that will induce a potential difference of one volt if the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second. The inductor's behaviour is in some regards converse to that of the capacitor: it will freely allow an unchanging current, but opposes
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#17328525770445460-415: Is the farad , named after Michael Faraday , and given the symbol F : one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb. A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current as it accumulates charge; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills, eventually falling to zero. A capacitor will therefore not permit
5565-535: Is the main intracellular electrolyte; both are involved in fluid balance and blood pressure control. All known multicellular lifeforms require a subtle and complex electrolyte balance between the intracellular and extracellular environments. In particular, the maintenance of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important. Such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of the body as well as blood pH , and are critical for nerve and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep
5670-524: Is therefore 0 at all places inside the body. This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage , a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects. The principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high-voltage equipment. There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium. Beyond this point, electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between
5775-409: Is usually measured in volts , and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity. This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference , and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. An electric field has
5880-536: Is widely used in information processing , telecommunications , and signal processing . Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards , electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system . Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control. The underlying principles that explain how semiconductors work are studied in solid state physics , whereas
5985-700: The Neo-Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ἤλεκτρον, elektron , the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne 's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646. Isaac Newton made early investigations into electricity, with an idea of his written down in his book Opticks arguably
6090-423: The electromagnetic force , one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity , that is, the net charge within an electrically isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system. Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as
6195-511: The quantum revolution. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels . The first solid-state device was the " cat's-whisker detector " first used in the 1900s in radio receivers. A whisker-like wire is placed lightly in contact with
6300-452: The strong interaction , but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force , the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 10 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together. Charge originates from certain types of subatomic particles , the most familiar carriers of which are the electron and proton . Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with
6405-529: The 17th and 18th centuries. The development of the theory of electromagnetism in the 19th century marked significant progress, leading to electricity's industrial and residential application by electrical engineers by the century's end. This rapid expansion in electrical technology at the time was the driving force behind the Second Industrial Revolution , with electricity's versatility driving transformations in both industry and society. Electricity
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#17328525770446510-710: The 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Arrhenius's explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into charged particles, to which Michael Faraday (1791-1867) had given the name " ions " many years earlier. Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis . Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current, solutions of salts contained ions. He thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions. Shortly after Arrhenius's hypothesis of ions, Franz Hofmeister and Siegmund Lewith found that different ion types displayed different effects on such things as
6615-538: The 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery , which resembles a galvanic cell , though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature. Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert wrote De Magnete , in which he made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined
6720-645: The Elder and Scribonius Largus , attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by electric catfish and electric rays , and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients with ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber , could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales of Miletus made
6825-413: The Hofmeister series is not entirely clear, but does not seem to result from changes in general water structure, instead more specific interactions between ions and proteins and ions and the water molecules directly contacting the proteins may be more important. Simulation studies have shown that the variation in solvation energy between the ions and the surrounding water molecules underlies the mechanism of
6930-445: The Hofmeister series or the reversed Hofmeister series depending on the pH . The concept of Hofmeister ionicity I h has been invoked by Dharma-wardana et al. where it is proposed to define I h as a sum over all ionic species, of the product of the ionic concentration (mole fraction) and a fractional number specifying the "Hofmeister strength" of the ion in denaturing a given reference protein. The concept of ionicity (as
7035-508: The Hofmeister series. A quantum chemical investigation suggests an electrostatic origin to the Hofmeister series. This work provides site-centred radial charge densities of the ions' interacting atoms (to approximate the electrostatic potential energy of interaction), and these appear to quantitatively correlate with many reported Hofmeister series for electrolyte properties, reaction rates and macromolecular stability (such as polymer solubility, and virus and enzyme activities). Early members of
7140-522: The anode. The ions in the electrolyte neutralize these charges, enabling the electrons to keep flowing and the reactions to continue. For example, in a solution of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) in water, the cathode reaction will be and hydrogen gas will bubble up; the anode reaction is and chlorine gas will be liberated into solution where it reacts with the sodium and hydroxyl ions to produce sodium hypochlorite - household bleach . The positively charged sodium ions Na will react toward
7245-408: The beginning of the field theory of the electric force. Further work was conducted in the 17th and early 18th centuries by Otto von Guericke , Robert Boyle , Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay . Later in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of
7350-419: The building it serves to protect. The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work . The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point. It
7455-490: The cathode, neutralizing the negative charge of OH there, and the negatively charged hydroxide ions OH will react toward the anode, neutralizing the positive charge of Na there. Without the ions from the electrolyte, the charges around the electrode would slow down continued electron flow; diffusion of H and OH through water to the other electrode takes longer than movement of the much more prevalent salt ions. Electrolytes dissociate in water because water molecules are dipoles and
7560-426: The charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law , which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them. The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to
7665-450: The charged parts. Air, for example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre. Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre. The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning , caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand. The voltage of
7770-470: The concentrations of different electrolytes under tight control. Both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body. Muscles and neurons are activated by electrolyte activity between the extracellular fluid or interstitial fluid , and intracellular fluid . Electrolytes may enter or leave the cell membrane through specialized protein structures embedded in the plasma membrane called " ion channels ". For example, muscle contraction
7875-411: The current varies in time. Direct current, as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative. If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction. Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly; almost always this takes
7980-516: The design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems are part of electronics engineering . Faraday's and Ampère's work showed that a time-varying magnetic field created an electric field, and a time-varying electric field created a magnetic field. Thus, when either field is changing in time, a field of the other is always induced. These variations are an electromagnetic wave . Electromagnetic waves were analysed theoretically by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864. Maxwell developed
8085-512: The dipoles orient in an energetically favorable manner to solvate the ions. In other systems, the electrode reactions can involve the metals of the electrodes as well as the ions of the electrolyte. Electrolytic conductors are used in electronic devices where the chemical reaction at a metal-electrolyte interface yields useful effects. Solid electrolytes can be mostly divided into four groups described below. Gel electrolytes – closely resemble liquid electrolytes. In essence, they are liquids in
8190-467: The dissociation reaction: It is also possible for substances to react with water, producing ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium , carbonate , and hydrogen carbonate ions. Molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity. In particular, ionic liquids, which are molten salts with melting points below 100 °C, are
8295-478: The early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering . Through such people as Alexander Graham Bell , Ottó Bláthy , Thomas Edison , Galileo Ferraris , Oliver Heaviside , Ányos Jedlik , William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin , Charles Algernon Parsons , Werner von Siemens , Joseph Swan , Reginald Fessenden , Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse , electricity turned from
8400-427: The effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current. The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère , who discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart. The interaction
8505-572: The electrolyte is weak. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited using electrolysis to extract constituent elements and compounds contained within the solution. Alkaline earth metals form hydroxides that are strong electrolytes with limited solubility in water, due to the strong attraction between their constituent ions. This limits their application to situations where high solubility is required. In 2021, researchers have found that electrolyte can "substantially facilitate electrochemical corrosion studies in less conductive media". In physiology ,
8610-448: The electronic electrometer . The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current , the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes . Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current. Electric current can flow through some things, electrical conductors , but will not flow through an electrical insulator . By historical convention,
8715-416: The electrons. However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation. The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction , and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and
8820-428: The elementary charge, and any amount of charge an object may carry is a multiple of the elementary charge. An electron has an equal negative charge, i.e. −1.602 176 634 × 10 coulombs . Charge is possessed not just by matter , but also by antimatter , each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle. The presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force: charges exert
8925-416: The fluid volumes. The word electrolyte derives from Ancient Greek ήλεκτρο- ( ēlectro -), prefix originally meaning amber but in modern contexts related to electricity, and λυτός ( lytos ), meaning "able to be untied or loosened". In his 1884 dissertation, Svante Arrhenius put forth his explanation of solid crystalline salts disassociating into paired charged particles when dissolved, for which he won
9030-495: The form of a sine wave . Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time. The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse. Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current, such as inductance and capacitance . These properties however can become important when circuitry
9135-400: The material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis , where ions (charged atoms ) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of
9240-550: The melt acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium , potassium , chloride , calcium , magnesium , and phosphate in a liquid phase are examples of electrolytes. In medicine, electrolyte replacement is needed when a person has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea , and as a response to sweating due to strenuous athletic activity. Commercial electrolyte solutions are available, particularly for sick children (such as oral rehydration solution, Suero Oral , or Pedialyte ) and athletes ( sports drinks ). Electrolyte monitoring
9345-572: The occurrence of an electrolyte imbalance . According to a study paid for by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute , electrolyte drinks containing sodium and potassium salts replenish the body's water and electrolyte concentrations after dehydration caused by exercise , excessive alcohol consumption , diaphoresis (heavy sweating), diarrhea, vomiting, intoxication or starvation; the study says that athletes exercising in extreme conditions (for three or more hours continuously, e.g.
9450-452: The preferential associations of oppositely charged ions can be ordered as: Combining kosmotropic anions with kosmotropic cations reduces the kosmotropic effect of these ions because they are pairing to each other too strongly to be structuring water. Kosmotropic anions do not readily pair with chaotropic cations. The combination of kosmotropic anions with chaotropic cations is the best ion combination to stabilize proteins. The mechanism of
9555-453: The primary ions of electrolytes are sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl), hydrogen phosphate (HPO 4 ), and hydrogen carbonate (HCO 3 ). The electric charge symbols of plus (+) and minus (−) indicate that the substance is ionic in nature and has an imbalanced distribution of electrons, the result of chemical dissociation . Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and potassium
9660-428: The principle, now known as Faraday's law of induction , that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy. Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as
9765-446: The series increase solvent surface tension and decrease the solubility of nonpolar molecules (" salting out "); in effect, they strengthen the hydrophobic interaction . By contrast, later salts in the series increase the solubility of nonpolar molecules (" salting in ") and decrease the order in water; in effect, they weaken the hydrophobic effect . The "salting out" effect is commonly exploited in protein purification through
9870-473: The solid medium. Usually it is a relatively high- dielectric constant polymer ( PEO , PMMA , PAN , polyphosphazenes , siloxanes , etc.) and a salt with low lattice energy . In order to increase the mechanical strength and conductivity of such electrolytes, very often composites are made, and inert ceramic phase is introduced. There are two major classes of such electrolytes: polymer-in-ceramic, and ceramic-in-polymer. Organic ionic plastic crystals – are
9975-506: The solubility of proteins. A consistent ordering of these different ions on the magnitude of their effect arises consistently in many other systems as well. This has since become known as the Hofmeister series . While the origins of these effects are not abundantly clear and have been debated throughout the past century, it has been suggested that the charge density of these ions is important and might actually have explanations originating from
10080-463: The solution amounts to a current. Some gases, such as hydrogen chloride (HCl), under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological (e.g., DNA , polypeptides ) or synthetic polymers (e.g., polystyrene sulfonate ), termed " polyelectrolytes ", which contain charged functional groups . A substance that dissociates into ions in solution or in
10185-454: The special property that it is conservative , which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated. The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage. For practical purposes, defining
10290-422: The structure of water, and are thus called "structure-breakers" or " chaotropes ". The order of the tendency of ions to make or break water structure is the basis of the Hofmeister series. Hofmeister discovered a series of salts that have consistent effects on the solubility of proteins and, as it was discovered later, on the stability of their secondary and tertiary structures . Anions appear to have
10395-402: The term electrolyte refers to the substance that is dissolved. Electrically, such a solution is neutral. If an electric potential is applied to such a solution, the cations of the solution are drawn to the electrode that has an abundance of electrons , while the anions are drawn to the electrode that has a deficit of electrons. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within
10500-418: The two forces of nature then known. The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it. Ørsted's words were that "the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner." The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too. Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed
10605-476: The unfolded form of a protein than with its native form. Consequently, they shift the chemical equilibrium of the unfolding reaction towards unfolded protein. The denaturing of proteins by an aqueous solution containing many types of ions is more complicated as all the ions can act, according to their Hofmeister activity, i.e., a fractional number specifying the position of the ion in the series (given previously) in terms of its relative efficiency in denaturing
10710-420: The use of ammonium sulfate precipitation . However, these salts also interact directly with proteins (which are charged and have strong dipole moments) and may even bind specifically (e.g., phosphate and sulfate binding to ribonuclease A ). Ions that have a strong "salting in" effect such as I and SCN are strong denaturants, because they salt in the peptide group, and thus interact much more strongly with
10815-417: The vector direction of the field is the line of greatest slope of potential, and where the equipotentials lie closest together. Ørsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. Moreover, the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces,
10920-453: The work of Charles-Augustin de Coulomb over 200 years ago. Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when salt is placed into a solvent such as water and the individual components dissociate due to the thermodynamic interactions between solvent and solute molecules, in a process called " solvation ". For example, when table salt ( sodium chloride ), NaCl, is placed in water, the salt (a solid) dissolves into its component ions, according to
11025-543: Was forced to move within the field; they are however an imaginary concept with no physical existence, and the field permeates all the intervening space between the lines. Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties: first, that they originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges; second, that they must enter any good conductor at right angles, and third, that they may never cross nor close in on themselves. A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface. The field
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