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103-523: Apart from tourism, Lubmin is a major transport and industry hub and investment location in the German energy sector. Both the Nord Stream 1 gas pipeline from Russia (by Gazprom and E.ON ) and several power plants (by Ørsted A/S and EnBW ) are under construction. Moreover, Lubmin is the administrative seat of Amt Lubmin , to which nine other municipalities belong. To the north of Lubmin lies

206-476: A generator that produces electricity . As of September 2023 , the International Atomic Energy Agency reported that there were 410 nuclear power reactors in operation in 32 countries around the world, and 57 nuclear power reactors under construction. Building a nuclear power plant often spans five to ten years, which can accrue significant financial costs, depending on how

309-718: A basic agreement on the construction of a North European gas pipeline. In November 2005, the North European Gas Pipeline Company (later Nord Stream AG) was incorporated in Zug , Switzerland. In December 2005, Gazprom started construction of the Russian onshore segment of the Nord Stream project, in order to connect Nord Stream with the wider Russian natural gas pipeline system. Specifically, the Gryazovets–Vyborg gas pipeline

412-402: A capacity of 27.5 billion m (970 billion cu ft) of natural gas per year. Pipes have a diameter of about 1,220 mm (48 in), and wall thicknesses of 41, 38 and 26.8 mm (1.61, 1.50 and 1.06 in) with corresponding working pressures of 220, 200 and 170 bar (22, 20 and 17 MPa; 3,200, 2,900 and 2,500 psi). Nord Stream

515-881: A ceremony held in Lubmin. During a routine annual checkup in November 2015, a small, remotely operated armed mine-disposal vehicle was found lying near the pipeline near the Öland island in the Baltic Sea. As the craft lay in Swedish territorial waters, Nord Stream requested the Swedish Navy to remove it. Although the nominal capacity of the pipeline is 55 billion cubic metres per annum (1.9 trillion cubic feet per annum), it transported 59.2 billion cubic metres (2.09 trillion cubic feet) in 2021. On 25 July 2022, Gazprom announced it would reduce gas flows to Germany to 20% of

618-460: A condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger which is connected to a secondary side such as a river or a cooling tower . The water is then pumped back into the steam generator and the cycle begins again. The water-steam cycle corresponds to the Rankine cycle . The nuclear reactor is the heart of the station. In its central part, the reactor's core produces heat due to nuclear fission. With this heat,

721-607: A contract to double the delivery to Denmark. In August 2006, Gazprom and E.ON Ruhrgas signed an agreement to extend current contracts on natural gas supplies and signed a new contract for an additional 4 billion m (140 billion cu ft) per year through the Nord Stream pipeline. In December 2006, Gazprom and Gaz de France (now GDF Suez) agreed to an additional 2.5 billion m (88 billion cu ft) gas supply through Nord Stream. The pipeline projects were criticized by some countries, geopolitical analysts, and environmental organizations (such as

824-442: A coolant is heated as it is pumped through the reactor and thereby removes the energy from the reactor. The heat from nuclear fission is used to raise steam, which runs through turbines , which in turn power the electrical generators. Nuclear reactors usually rely on uranium to fuel the chain reaction. Uranium is a very heavy metal that is abundant on Earth and is found in sea water as well as most rocks. Naturally occurring uranium

927-402: A facility has been completely decommissioned it is released from regulatory control, and the licensee of the station no longer has responsibility for its nuclear safety. Generally speaking, nuclear stations were originally designed for a life of about 30 years. Newer stations are designed for a 40 to 60-year operating life. The Centurion Reactor is a future class of nuclear reactor that

1030-457: A joint venture seabed dredging contract. The supply contracts for the second line were awarded to OMK, Europipe, and Sumitomo Heavy Industries in January 2010. The agreement to add Gasunie to the consortium as the fourth partner was signed in November 2007. In June 2008, Gasunie was included in the register of shareholders. In March 2010, French energy company GDF Suez signed with Gazprom

1133-498: A memorandum of understanding to acquire 9% stake in the project. The transaction was closed in July 2010. In August 2008, Nord Stream AG hired former Finnish prime minister Paavo Lipponen as a consultant to help speed up the application process in Finland and to serve as a link between Nord Stream and Finnish authorities. In December 2007, Nord Stream AG submitted application documents to

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1236-544: A new pier was completed, and several hotels and restaurants constructed, thus underlining the status of the town as a seaside resort. After the Second World War Lubmin was part of Rostock district, and since 1990 part of the federal state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania . Development of the municipality is facilitated by a state highway from Greifswald to Wolgast passing through Lubmin. An additional highway runs from Lubmin to Wusterhusen . Lubmin also possesses

1339-404: A nuclear reactor heats the reactor coolant. The coolant may be water or gas, or even liquid metal, depending on the type of reactor. The reactor coolant then goes to a steam generator and heats water to produce steam. The pressurized steam is then usually fed to a multi-stage steam turbine . After the steam turbine has expanded and partially condensed the steam, the remaining vapor is condensed in

1442-479: A nuclear station is smaller than the fuel cost for operation of coal or gas plants. Since most of the cost of nuclear power plant is capital cost, there is almost no cost saving by running it at less than full capacity. Nuclear power plants are routinely used in load following mode on a large scale in France, although "it is generally accepted that this is not an ideal economic situation for nuclear stations". Unit A at

1545-506: A number of long-established projects are struggling to find financing, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavodă in Romania , and some potential backers have pulled out. Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem for nuclear projects. Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears

1648-444: A previous goal aimed to reduce nuclear electricity generation share to lower than fifty percent by 2025, this target was postponed to 2035 in 2019 and ultimately discarded in 2023. Russia continues to export the most nuclear power plants in the world, with projects across various countries: as of July 2023, Russia was constructing 19 out of 22 reactors constructed by foreign vendors; however, some exporting projects were canceled due to

1751-575: A railway connection, though it no longer carries passengers. Since 2004 the municipality has featured a large Baltic Sea port (however this has not yet been officially opened). The port was constructed from the discharge channel of the former nuclear power station. A large part of the municipal area of Lubmin was occupied by the GDR 's largest nuclear power station , Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant . The first of its four reactors went into operation in 1973. An additional four nuclear reactors were constructed in

1854-587: A significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power stations. Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan , costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power stations, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats. However many designs, such as the currently under construction AP1000, use passive nuclear safety cooling systems, unlike those of Fukushima I which required active cooling systems, which largely eliminates

1957-413: A slight decrease from the 2653 TWh produced in 2021. Thirteen countries generated at least one-quarter of their electricity from nuclear sources. Notably, France relies on nuclear energy for about 70% of its electricity needs, while Ukraine , Slovakia , Belgium , and Hungary source around half their power from nuclear. Japan , which previously depended on nuclear for over a quarter of its electricity,

2060-427: A small enough volume to become supercritical. Most reactors require continuous temperature control to prevent a core meltdown , which has occurred on a few occasions through accident or natural disaster, releasing radiation and making the surrounding area uninhabitable. Plants must be defended against theft of nuclear material and attack by enemy military planes or missiles. The most serious accidents to date have been

2163-534: A statement regarding a joint feasibility study for the construction of the pipeline, and in November 2002, the Management Committee of Gazprom approved a schedule of project implementation. In May 2005, Fortum withdrew from the project and sold its stake in North Transgas to Gazprom. As a result, Gazprom became the only shareholder of North Transgas Oy. In September 2005, Gazprom, BASF, and E.ON signed

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2266-482: A three-year research study of offshore floating nuclear power generation. In October 2022, NuScale Power and Canadian company Prodigy announced a joint project to bring a North American small modular reactor based floating plant to market. The economics of nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. Nuclear power stations typically have high capital costs, but low direct fuel costs, with

2369-514: A twenty-year contract for the delivery of 1 billion m (35 billion cu ft) Russian gas per year to Denmark. Additionally, under a separate fifteen-year agreement, Ørsted would supply 600 million m (21 billion cu ft) natural gas per year to the Gazprom subsidiary, Gazprom Marketing and Trading, in the United Kingdom. In October 2009, the companies signed

2472-580: A worldwide perspective, long-term waste storage costs are uncertain. Construction, or capital cost aside, measures to mitigate global warming such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions trading , increasingly favor the economics of nuclear power. Further efficiencies are hoped to be achieved through more advanced reactor designs, Generation III reactors promise to be at least 17% more fuel efficient, and have lower capital costs, while Generation IV reactors promise further gains in fuel efficiency and significant reductions in nuclear waste. In Eastern Europe,

2575-584: Is a pair of offshore natural gas pipelines in Europe that run under the Baltic Sea from Russia to Germany . It consists of the Nord Stream 1 (NS1) pipeline running from Vyborg in northwestern Russia, near Finland , and the Nord Stream 2 (NS2) pipeline running from Ust-Luga in northwestern Russia near Estonia . Both pipelines run to Lubmin in the northeastern German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern . Each pipeline contains two pipes, denoted A and B; each of

2678-520: Is anticipated to resume similar levels of nuclear energy utilization. Over the last 15 years, the United States has seen a significant improvement in the operational performance of its nuclear power plants, enhancing their utilization and efficiency, adding the output equivalent to 19 new 1000 MWe reactors without actual construction. In France, nuclear power plants still produce over sixty percent of this country's total power generation in 2022. While

2781-503: Is being designed to last 100 years. One of the major limiting wear factors is the deterioration of the reactor's pressure vessel under the action of neutron bombardment, however in 2018 Rosatom announced it had developed a thermal annealing technique for reactor pressure vessels which ameliorates radiation damage and extends service life by between 15 and 30 years. Nuclear stations are used primarily for base load because of economic considerations. The fuel cost of operations for

2884-596: Is connected to two transmission pipelines in Germany. The southern pipeline (OPAL pipeline) runs from Greifswald to Olbernhau near the Germany– Czech Republic border. It connects Nord Stream with JAGAL (connected to the Yamal-Europe pipeline ) and STEGAL (connected to the Russian gas transport route via Czechia and Slovakia ) transmission pipelines. The Gazelle pipeline , put into operation in January 2013, links

2987-431: Is found in two different isotopes : uranium-238 (U-238), accounting for 99.3% and uranium-235 (U-235) accounting for about 0.7%. U-238 has 146 neutrons and U-235 has 143 neutrons. Different isotopes have different behaviors. For instance, U-235 is fissile which means that it is easily split and gives off a lot of energy making it ideal for nuclear energy. On the other hand, U-238 does not have that property despite it being

3090-539: Is known as the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline. For Russia, the pipeline allows another economic partnership in the face of resistance to the Nord Stream 2 pipeline. According to Gazprom, the costs of the onshore pipelines in Russia and Germany were around €6 billion. The offshore section of the project cost €8.8 billion. 30% of the financing was raised through equity provided by shareholders in proportion to their stakes in

3193-477: Is operated by Nord Stream AG. It runs from the Vyborg compressor station at Portovaya Bay along the bottom of the Baltic Sea to Greifswald, Germany. The length of the subsea pipeline is 1,222 km (759 mi), of which 1.5 km (0.93 mi) are on Russian inland, 121.8 km (65.8 nmi) in Russian territorial waters, 1.4 km (0.8 nmi) in the Russian economic zone, 375.3 km (202.6 nmi) in

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3296-531: Is secured by six compressor stations. The Gryazovets-Vyborg pipeline, parallel to the branch of the Northern Lights pipeline (Gryazovets–Leningrad and Leningrad–Vyborg–Russian-state-border pipelines), also supplies gas to the Northwestern region of Russia, which includes Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast . The pipeline is operated by Gazprom Transgaz Saint Petersburg. The Nord Stream offshore pipeline

3399-627: Is the documentation bank and bank facility agent. Société Générale is the intercreditor agent, Sace facility agent, security trustee, and model bank. Commerzbank is the Hermes facility agent, UniCredit is the UFK facility agent, Deutsche Bank is the account bank, and Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation is the technical and environmental bank. The financial advisers were Société Générale, Royal Bank of Scotland ( ABN Amro ), Dresdner Kleinwort (Commerzbank), and Unicredit. The legal adviser to Nord Stream

3502-429: Is the only nuclear facility that does not use a natural body of water for cooling, instead it uses treated sewage from the greater Phoenix metropolitan area. The water coming from the cooling body of water is either pumped back to the water source at a warmer temperature or returns to a cooling tower where it either cools for more uses or evaporates into water vapor that rises out the top of the tower. The water level in

3605-518: Is the university town of Greifswald to the west and to the south is the municipality of Wolgast . The earliest written record of the name Lubmin is in 1271. The place name Lubemyn is of Slavic origin and until the Reformation referred to Eldena monastery . According to tradition the village was badly affected by the All Saints' Flood of 1304 : a strong wind from the southwest depressed water in

3708-680: The bodden before finally swinging northeast. The water deluged the Pomeranian coast and caused heavy damage. In 1309, Duke Bogislav IV transferred Lubmin to the Cistercian abbey of Eldena in the wake of the Reformation . As a result of the Thirty Years' War , Lubmin, like all of Western Pomerania , became part of the Dominion of Swedish Pomerania . Around 1700 the town came into the possession of

3811-486: The BWR , the steam is directed into the suppression chamber and condenses there. The chambers on a heat exchanger are connected to the intermediate cooling circuit. The main condenser is a large cross-flow shell and tube heat exchanger that takes wet vapor, a mixture of liquid water and steam at saturation conditions, from the turbine-generator exhaust and condenses it back into sub-cooled liquid water so it can be pumped back to

3914-570: The Bay of Greifswald . The northeast edge of the municipality consists of the Struck peninsula which is bounded by the mouth of the Peenestrom delta. The seaside resort has a kilometer-long sand beach and is largely covered by pine woods. Lubmin's immediate neighbouring municipalities are Kröslin and Rubenow to the southeast, Wusterhusen to the south and Brünzow to the southwest. Somewhat further away

4017-761: The Kraftwerke Greifswald , a multifuel, 2   × 800   MW power plant , in 2006. Some feared that the resulting increase in the temperature of the Baltic Sea could damage the sea's ecosystem . DONG Energy abandoned the project in 2009. In 2022, a liquified natural gas regasification reception terminal started sending gas onshore, supplied via smaller transfer vessels from a floating production storage and offloading ship further offshore. [REDACTED] Media related to Lubmin at Wikimedia Commons Nord Stream 1 Nord Stream ( German–English mixed expression for "North Stream 1"; Russian : Северный поток , romanized :  Severny potok )

4120-491: The Russian invasion of Ukraine . Meanwhile, China continues to advance in nuclear energy: having 25 reactors under construction by late 2023, China is the country with the most reactors being built at one time in the world. Nuclear decommissioning is the dismantling of a nuclear power station and decontamination of the site to a state no longer requiring protection from radiation for the general public. The main difference from

4223-769: The Soviet Union . The world's first full scale power station, Calder Hall in the United Kingdom , opened on October 17, 1956 and was also meant to produce plutonium . The world's first full scale power station solely devoted to electricity production was the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania , United States, which was connected to the grid on December 18, 1957. The conversion to electrical energy takes place indirectly, as in conventional thermal power stations. The fission in

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4326-470: The Swedish field marshal Fabian Graf von Wrangel . At the 1815 Congress of Vienna the territory was ceded to Prussia . In 1886 Lubmin was referred to for the first time as a "seaside resort". It was not until 1893 that Lubmin became connected to the road from Eldena to Wolgast . A light railway running from Greifswald via Lubmin to Wolgast was opened in 1898. In 1945 the line was dismantled and handed to

4429-656: The UAE launched the Arab region's first-ever nuclear energy plant. Unit 1 of the Barakah plant in the Al Dhafrah region of Abu Dhabi commenced generating heat on the first day of its launch, while the remaining 3 Units are being built. However, Nuclear Consulting Group head, Paul Dorfman, warned the Gulf nation's investment into the plant as a risk "further destabilizing the volatile Gulf region, damaging

4532-483: The World Wide Fund for Nature ). Nuclear power station A nuclear power plant ( NPP ), also known as a nuclear power station ( NPS ), nuclear generating station ( NGS ) or atomic power station ( APS ) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor . As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to

4635-424: The 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies," in some countries. Proponents argue that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source which reduces carbon emissions and can increase energy security if its use supplants a dependence on imported fuels. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to

4738-485: The 1979 Three Mile Island accident , the 1986 Chernobyl disaster , and the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster , corresponding to the beginning of the operation of generation II reactors . Professor of sociology Charles Perrow states that multiple and unexpected failures are built into society's complex and tightly coupled nuclear reactor systems. Such accidents are unavoidable and cannot be designed around. An interdisciplinary team from MIT has estimated that given

4841-559: The Brussels supplementary convention, and the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage . However states with a majority of the world's nuclear power stations, including the U.S., Russia, China and Japan, are not party to international nuclear liability conventions. The nuclear power debate about the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes peaked during

4944-604: The Dutch gas company Gasunie (9%), and the French gas company Engie (9%). The chairman of the shareholders' committee is German ex-chancellor Gerhard Schröder . In October 2005, Gazprom signed a contract with German gas company Wingas —a then joint venture of Gazprom and Wintershall (a subsidiary of BASF )—to supply 9 billion cubic metres (320 billion cubic feet) of natural gas per year for 25 years. In June 2006, Gazprom and Danish Ørsted A/S (then named DONG Energy) signed

5047-519: The Finnish economic zone, 506.4 km (273.4 nmi) in the Swedish economic zone, 87.7 km (47.4 nmi) in Danish territorial waters, 49.4 km (26.7 nmi) in the Danish economic zone, 31.2 km (16.8 nmi) in the German economic zone, 49.9 km (26.9 nmi) in German territorial waters, and 0.5 km (0.31 mi) on German inland. The pipeline has two parallel lines, both with

5150-484: The Nord Stream pipeline attack. Nord Stream is fed by the Gryazovets–Vyborg gas pipeline . It is a part of the integrated gas transport network of Russia that connects the existing grid in Gryazovets with the coastal compressor station at Vyborg . The length of the pipeline is 917 km (570 mi). The diameter of the pipe is 1,420 mm (56 in), and its working pressure is 100 atm (10 MPa), which

5253-618: The OPAL pipeline with the gas network in southern Germany. The western pipeline ( NEL pipeline ) runs from Greifswald to Achim , where it is connected with the Rehden–Hamburg gas pipeline . Together with the MIDAL pipeline, it creates the Greifswald– Bunde connection. Further gas delivery to the United Kingdom is made through the connection between Bunde and Den Helder , and from there through

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5356-471: The Soviet Union as war reparations . The first pier was built around 1900. In 1969 construction work commenced on the nuclear power station and in consequence a railway line was built from Greifswald to Lubmin. The unfinished (4 of 8 reactors were producing power and the unfinished 4 were part of an upgrade project started in the 1980s) power station was shut down shortly after German reunification . In 1992

5459-612: The Swedish exclusive economic zone by the Castoro Sei vessel, which continued to lay most of the distance. The Castoro 10 performed pipe work near Germany, and Solitaire was pipe-laying near Finland. Construction of the pipeline was officially launched in April 2010 at Portovaya Bay. The first pipe was completed in May 2011. Underwater works were completed in June 2011. In August 2011, Nord Stream

5562-480: The Swedish government for the pipeline construction in the Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone. In February 2008, the Swedish government rejected the consortium's application, which it had found incomplete. A new application was filed later. In October 2009, Nord Stream received a construction permit to build the pipeline in Danish waters. In November 2009, the Swedish and Finnish authorities permitted

5665-636: The United States, due to concerns that the pipelines would increase Russia's influence in Europe and result in a reduction of transit fees for the use of existing pipelines in Central and Eastern European countries. On 26 September 2022, the NS1 pipeline experienced multiple large pressure drops to almost zero, attributed to three as of yet unexplained underwater explosions in international waters, rendering three of their four pipes inoperable. The perpetrators' identities and

5768-581: The Yamal Peninsula, namely Ob and Taz bays . It was predicted that the majority of the gas from Russia's offshore Shtokman field would also be sold to Europe via the Nord Stream pipeline following the completion a pipeline connection across the Kola peninsula to Volkhov or Vyborg. However, the Shtokman project was postponed indefinitely. The proposed gas route from Russia's West Siberian petroleum basin to China

5871-502: The building; however Block 5 and 6, completed in 1989, had only progressed to trials before the entire plant was shut down 1990 due to tightened safety standards. That's why today Block 6 is open for visitors, as it has been transformed into a museum. Nuclear power opponents fear that the Federal nuclear waste facility (operated by Energiewerke Nord GmbH) could be used to serve all of Europe . Fears have been raised over potential damage to

5974-552: The chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western countries. They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. Opponents say that nuclear power poses many threats to people and

6077-433: The coastal landscape and the quality of the traffic route has been criticized. At present it is disputed in Lubmin whether the focus of the municipality is to concentrate on the industrial settlement or on the previously neglected tourist industry. Three power plants were planned to be constructed in Lubmin to support the Nord Stream 1 Russo–German gas pipeline ending nearby. The Danish energy company DONG Energy planned

6180-518: The concrete weight coating, new coating plants were constructed in Mukran (Germany) and Kotka (Finland). Rolls-Royce plc supplied eight aeroderivative gas turbines driving centrifugal compressors for front-end gas boosting at the Vyborg (Portovaya) gas compressor station . Dresser-Rand Group supplied DATUM compressors. Siirtec Nigi SPA provided a gas treatment unit for the Portovaya station. For

6283-572: The construction period, Nord Stream AG created a logistic center in Gotland . Other interim stockyards are located in Mukran, Kotka, Hanko (Finland), and Karlskrona (Sweden). Nord Stream 1 is operated by the special-purpose company Nord Stream AG, incorporated in Zug, Switzerland , in November 2005. Shareholders of the company are the Russian gas company Gazprom (51% of shares), the German companies Wintershall Dea and PEG Infrastruktur AG (E.ON) (both 15.5%),

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6386-485: The costs of fuel extraction, processing, use and spent fuel storage internalized costs. Therefore, comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear stations. Cost estimates take into account station decommissioning and nuclear waste storage or recycling costs in the United States due to the Price Anderson Act . With

6489-623: The country." In September 2022 The Washington Post reported that the incidents are likely to put a permanent end to both Nord Stream 1 and 2. On 27 April 2023 the Danish Defence Command confirmed that six Russian navy ships including the SS-750 salvage ship able to launch a mini-submarine were operating in the area four days before the explosion. Russia denied involvement in the sabotage. The United States rejected claims from investigative journalist Seymour Hersh of involvement in

6592-424: The destruction of a turbine in operation from flying towards the reactor. In the case of a pressurized water reactor, the steam turbine is separated from the nuclear system. To detect a leak in the steam generator and thus the passage of radioactive water at an early stage, an activity meter is mounted to track the outlet steam of the steam generator. In contrast, boiling water reactors pass radioactive water through

6695-458: The dismantling of other power stations is the presence of radioactive material that requires special precautions to remove and safely relocate to a waste repository. Decommissioning involves many administrative and technical actions. It includes all clean-up of radioactivity and progressive demolition of the station. Once a facility is decommissioned, there should no longer be any danger of a radioactive accident or to any persons visiting it. After

6798-416: The end-station in Germany. A gas leak from NS2 was located late on 26 September. Early on the 27th, two separate leaks in NS1 were discovered. They occurred in international waters , but within the Danish and Swedish exclusive economic zones . Both Berliner Zeitung and Le Monde newspapers suggested acts of sabotage, and a Kremlin spokesman also said it could be. Neither pipeline was in operation at

6901-534: The energy-intensive stages of the nuclear fuel chain are considered, from uranium mining to nuclear decommissioning , nuclear power is not a low-carbon electricity source despite the possibility of refinement and long-term storage being powered by a nuclear facility. Those countries that do not contain uranium mines cannot achieve energy independence through existing nuclear power technologies. Actual construction costs often exceed estimates, and spent fuel management costs are difficult to define. On 1 August 2020,

7004-402: The environment and raising the possibility of nuclear proliferation." Nuclear power plants do not produce greenhouse gases during operation. Older nuclear power plants, like ones using second-generation reactors , produce approximately the same amount of carbon dioxide during the whole life cycle of nuclear power plants for an average of about 11g/kWh, as much power generated by wind , which

7107-775: The environment, and that costs do not justify benefits. Threats include health risks and environmental damage from uranium mining , processing and transport, the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation or sabotage, and the problem of radioactive nuclear waste . Another environmental issue is discharge of hot water into the sea. The hot water modifies the environmental conditions for marine flora and fauna. They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong, and there have been many serious nuclear accidents . Critics do not believe that these risks can be reduced through new technology , despite rapid advancements in containment procedures and storage methods. Opponents argue that when all

7210-411: The environment. In addition, many reactors are equipped with a dome of concrete to protect the reactor against both internal casualties and external impacts. The purpose of the steam turbine is to convert the heat contained in steam into mechanical energy. The engine house with the steam turbine is usually structurally separated from the main reactor building. It is aligned so as to prevent debris from

7313-513: The expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period. The MIT study does not take into account improvements in safety since 1970. Nuclear power works under an insurance framework that limits or structures accident liabilities in accordance with the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy ,

7416-610: The four pipes is approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) long and with approximate diameters of 1,220 millimetres (48 in). The combined capacity of the four pipes is 110 billion cubic metres per annum (3.9 trillion cubic feet per annum) of natural gas. The name "Nord Stream" sometimes refers to a larger pipeline network that includes the feeding onshore pipeline in Russia and additional connections in Western Europe. These Nord Stream projects have faced opposition from some Central and Eastern European countries, as well as

7519-462: The full volume of contracted gas through the pipeline; Siemens Energy , which maintains the turbine, rejected this and stated that there are no legal obstacles to its provision of maintenance for the pipeline. On 26 September 2022, multiple ruptures in the NS1 and the NS2 pipelines were detected in what appeared to be an act of sabotage . Unexplained large pressure drops were reported in both pipelines at

7622-406: The hot coolant is used as a heat source for a boiler, and the pressurized steam from that drives one or more steam turbine driven electrical generators . In the event of an emergency, safety valves can be used to prevent pipes from bursting or the reactor from exploding. The valves are designed so that they can derive all of the supplied flow rates with little increase in pressure. In the case of

7725-517: The initial investments are financed. Because of this high construction cost and lower operations, maintenance, and fuel costs, nuclear plants are usually used for base load generation, because this maximizes the hours over which the fixed cost of construction can be amortized. Nuclear power plants have a carbon footprint comparable to that of renewable energy such as solar farms and wind farms , and much lower than fossil fuels such as natural gas and coal . Nuclear power plants are among

7828-549: The joint company North Transgas Oy for the construction and operation of a gas pipeline from Russia to northern Germany across the Baltic Sea. North Transgas Oy cooperated with the German gas company Ruhrgas . A route survey was done in the exclusive economic zones of Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany, and a feasibility study of the pipeline was conducted in 1998. Several routes were considered, including those with onshore segments through Finland and Sweden. In April 2001, Gazprom, Fortum , Ruhrgas, and Wintershall adopted

7931-539: The laying of the pipeline in their exclusive economic zones. In February 2010, the Regional State Administrative Agency for Southern Finland issued the final environmental permit allowing construction of the Finnish section of the pipeline. Construction of the Portovaya compressor station in Vyborg, near the Gulf of Finland , began in January 2010. The first pipe of the pipeline was laid in April 2010 in

8034-545: The manufacturer. On 31 August 2022, Gazprom halted any gas delivery through Nord Stream 1 for three days, officially because of maintenance. On 2 September 2022, the company announced that natural gas supplies via the Nord Stream 1 pipeline would remain shut off indefinitely until the main gas turbine at the Portovaya compressor station near St Petersburg was fixed due to an engine oil leak. Gazprom justified this by claiming that European Union sanctions against Russia had resulted in technical problems, preventing it from providing

8137-601: The maximum capacity, or 50% of the current throughput. The company shut down the pipeline for 10 days because of maintenance and claimed the reduction was due to a repaired turbine in Montréal, Canada, that could not be delivered due to sanctions against Russia . The German government denied this claim and believed there was no reason for reducing the flow. Meanwhile, during a press conference in Tehran , Putin said that these flows could be increased again if Russia receives more turbines from

8240-471: The motives behind the sabotage remain debated despite three separate investigations by Denmark, Germany, and Sweden. On 18 November 2022, Swedish authorities announced that remains of explosives were found at the site of the leaks, and confirmed that the incident was the result of "gross sabotage", while Danish authorities used the phrase "deliberate actions". The Nord Stream pipeline project began in 1997, when Gazprom and Finnish oil company Neste formed

8343-536: The need to spend more on redundant back up safety equipment. According to the World Nuclear Association , as of March 2020: The Russian state nuclear company Rosatom is the largest player in international nuclear power market, building nuclear plants around the world. Whereas Russian oil and gas were subject to international sanctions after the Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Rosatom

8446-473: The now decommissioned German Biblis Nuclear Power Plant was designed to modulate its output 15% per minute between 40% and 100% of its nominal power. Russia has led in the practical development of floating nuclear power stations , which can be transported to the desired location and occasionally relocated or moved for easier decommissioning. In 2022, the United States Department of Energy funded

8549-473: The offshore interconnector Balgzand– Bacton ( BBL Pipeline ). Russia's West Siberian petroleum basin is the source location for Nord Stream. The Yuzhno-Russkoye field , which is located in the Krasnoselkupsky District, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug , Tyumen Oblast , was designated as the main source of natural gas for the Nord Stream 1 pipeline. Nord Stream 1 and 2 are also fed from fields in

8652-411: The pipe supply contracts were awarded to pipe producers EUROPIPE and OMK. In February 2008, the concrete weight coating and logistics services agreements were awarded to EUPEC PipeCoatings S.A. In December 2008, Rolls-Royce Holdings was awarded a contract to supply turbines for the compressor. In January 2009, Royal Boskalis Westminster and Danish Dredging Contractor Rohde Nielsen A/S were awarded

8755-593: The project, while 70% was obtained from external financing by banks. There were two tranches of fundraising. The first tranche, totaling €3.9 billion, included a €3.1 billion, 16-year facility covered by export credit agencies and an €800 million, 10-year uncovered commercial loan to be serviced by earnings from the transportation contracts. A further €1.6 billion is covered by French credit insurance company Euler Hermes , €1 billion by German loan guarantee program UFK, and €500 million by Italian export credit agency SACE SpA. Crédit Agricole

8858-474: The prospect that all spent nuclear fuel could potentially be recycled by using future reactors, generation IV reactors are being designed to completely close the nuclear fuel cycle . However, up to now, there has not been any actual bulk recycling of waste from a NPP, and on-site temporary storage is still being used at almost all plant sites due to construction problems for deep geological repositories . Only Finland has stable repository plans, therefore from

8961-427: The reactor by the condensate and feedwater pumps. In the main condenser, the wet vapor turbine exhaust come into contact with thousands of tubes that have much colder water flowing through them on the other side. The cooling water typically come from a natural body of water such as a river or lake. Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station , located in the desert about 97 kilometres (60 mi) west of Phoenix, Arizona,

9064-540: The risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power stations were developed by state-owned or regulated utilities where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the electricity market where these risks and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by station suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to

9167-473: The sabotage. As of February 2023 none of the three separate investigations carried out by Germany, Sweden and Denmark publicly assigned responsibility for the damage. In June 2023, The Washington Post reported that the United States had intelligence of a Ukrainian plan to attack Nord Stream, and in November 2023 reported that Roman Chervinsky, a colonel in Ukraine's Special Operations Forces, had coordinated

9270-632: The safest modes of electricity generation, comparable to solar and wind power plants. The first time that heat from a nuclear reactor was used to generate electricity was on December 21, 1951, at the Experimental Breeder Reactor I , powering four light bulbs. On June 27, 1954, the world's first nuclear power station to generate electricity for a power grid , the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant , commenced operations in Obninsk , in

9373-407: The same element. Different isotopes also have different half-lives . U-238 has a longer half-life than U-235, so it takes longer to decay over time. This also means that U-238 is less radioactive than U-235. Since nuclear fission creates radioactivity, the reactor core is surrounded by a protective shield. This containment absorbs radiation and prevents radioactive material from being released into

9476-693: The steam generator and the nuclear reactor is controlled using the feedwater system. The feedwater pump has the task of taking the water from the condensate system, increasing the pressure and forcing it into either the steam generators—in the case of a pressurized water reactor — or directly into the reactor, for boiling water reactors . Continuous power supply to the plant is critical to ensure safe operation. Most nuclear stations require at least two distinct sources of offsite power for redundancy. These are usually provided by multiple transformers that are sufficiently separated and can receive power from multiple transmission lines. In addition, in some nuclear stations,

9579-487: The steam turbine, so the turbine is kept as part of the radiologically controlled area of the nuclear power station. The electric generator converts mechanical power supplied by the turbine into electrical power. Low-pole AC synchronous generators of high rated power are used. A cooling system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the station, where the thermal energy can be harnessed to produce electricity or to do other useful work. Typically

9682-452: The subsea pipeline was done by Snamprogetti (now part of Saipem) and the pipeline was constructed by Saipem. Saipem subcontracted Allseas to lay more than 25% of both pipelines. The seabed was prepared for the laying of the pipeline by a joint venture of Royal Boskalis Westminster and Tideway. The pipes were provided by EUROPIPE, OMK, and Sumitomo. Concrete weight coating and logistics services were provided by EUPEC PipeCoatings S.A. For

9785-696: The time of these incidents, but both did contain pressurized gas. The rupturing of the Nord Stream pipelines happened as the Baltic Pipe was being opened for natural gas to come in from the North Sea through Denmark to Poland . As of 29 September 2022 , the Yamal–Europe pipeline is operational, although "There are concerns that if Russia introduces sanctions against Ukraine's Naftogaz [...] that could prohibit Gazprom from paying Ukraine transit fees [... that] could end Russian gas flows to Europe via

9888-477: The turbine generator can power the station's loads while the station is online, without requiring external power. This is achieved via station service transformers which tap power from the generator output before they reach the step-up transformer. Nuclear power plants generate approximately 10% of global electricity, sourced from around 440 reactors worldwide. They are recognized as a significant provider of low-carbon electricity , accounting for about one-quarter of

9991-406: The world's supply in this category. As of 2020, nuclear power stood as the second-largest source of low-carbon energy, making up 26% of the total. Nuclear power facilities are active in 32 countries or regions, and their influence extends beyond these nations through regional transmission grids, especially in Europe. In 2022, nuclear power plants generated 2545 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity,

10094-452: Was White & Case , and legal adviser for the lenders was Clifford Chance . The environmental impact assessment of Nord Stream 1 was carried out by Rambøll and Environmental Resource Management. The route and seabed surveys were conducted by Marin Mätteknik, IfAÖ, PeterGaz, and DOF Subsea . Preliminary front-end engineering was done by Intec Engineering. The design engineering of

10197-549: Was built in Babayevo , Vologda Oblast , connecting Nord Stream to the Northern Lights Pipeline network . The construction was completed in 2010. In October 2006, the pipeline and the operating company were officially renamed Nord Stream AG. All information related to the pipeline project, including results of the seabed survey of 1998, was transferred from North Transgas to Nord Stream AG. In November 2006, North Transgas

10300-615: Was connected to the German OPAL pipeline , with the first gas delivery pumped in September 2011. Construction of the second pipe was completed in August 2012 and inaugurated in October 2012. The pipeline was officially inaugurated in November 2011 by German Chancellor Angela Merkel , Russian President Dmitry Medvedev , French Prime Minister François Fillon , and Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte at

10403-536: Was delivered in March 2009. The gas systems operated by Finland's Gasum are connected to Nord Stream via a branch pipeline in Karelia . In March 2007, Nord Stream AG hired Italian company Snamprogetti , a subsidiary of Saipem , for detailed design engineering of the pipeline. A letter of intent for construction works was signed with Saipem in September 2007 and the contract was concluded in June 2008. In September 2007,

10506-477: Was not targeted by sanctions. However, some countries, especially in Europe, scaled back or cancelled planned nuclear power plants that were to be built by Rosatom. Modern nuclear reactor designs have had numerous safety improvements since the first-generation nuclear reactors. A nuclear power plant cannot explode like a nuclear weapon because the fuel for uranium reactors is not enriched enough, and nuclear weapons require precision explosives to force fuel into

10609-431: Was officially dissolved. The environmental impact assessment started in November 2006, when notifications were sent to Russia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany as parties of origin (countries whose exclusive economic zones or territorial waters the pipeline was planned to pass through), and Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia as affected parties. The final report on transboundary environmental impact assessment

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