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21-874: The two languages, Warembori and Yoke , were listed as isolates in Stephen Wurm 's widely used classification. Donohue (1998) showed them to be related with shared morphological irregularities. Ross (2007) classified Warembori as an Austronesian language based on pronouns; however, Donohue argues that these are borrowed, since the two pronouns most resistant to borrowing, 'I' and 'thou', do not resemble Austronesian or any other language family. The singular prefixes resemble Kwerba languages , but Lower Mamberamo has nothing else in common with that family. (See Warembori language and Yoke language for details.) Donohue argues that they form an independent family, though one perhaps related to another Papuan family, that has been extensively relexified under Austronesian influence, especially in

42-521: A reflexive of Form I. It is placed after the first consonant of the root ; an epenthetic i- prefix is also added, since words cannot begin with a consonant cluster. An example is اجتهد ijtahada "he worked hard", from جهد jahada "he strove". (The words ijtihad and jihad are nouns derived from these two verbs.) Infixes are common in some Austronesian and Austroasiatic languages , but not in others. For example, in Tagalog ,

63-498: A word stem . Thus, the word originally, formed by adding the suffix -ly to original, does not turn the suffix -al into an infix. There is simply a sequence of two suffixes, origin-al-ly. In order for -al- to be considered an infix, it would have to have been inserted in the non-existent word *originly. The "infixes" in the tradition of Bantu linguistics are often sequences of prefixes of this type, though there may be debate over specific cases. The Semitic languages have

84-600: A distant relationship to Kwerba, though the Kwerba family shares almost no vocabulary with the Lower Mamberamo family. The Lower Mamberamo plural prefixes are similar to Austronesian, as are the plural object suffixes and, at least in Warembori, plural independent pronouns. The sequence /nk/ is realized as [ŋɡ] . The light voiced stops /b d/ lenite to [β r] between vowels within a word. The heavy stops do not lenite. When

105-452: A form of ablaut (changing the vowels within words, as in English sing, sang, sung, song) that is sometimes called infixation, as the vowels are placed between the consonants of the root. However, this interdigitation of a discontinuous root with a discontinuous affix is more often called transfixation . An interfix joins a compound word , as in speed-o-meter . When glossing , it

126-414: A grammatical form similar to the active voice is formed by adding the infix ⟨um⟩ near the beginning of a verb. The most common infix is ⟨in⟩ which marks the perfect aspect, as in ' giniba ', meaning ‘ruined’ (from ‘ giba ’, an adjective meaning ‘worn-out’); ' binato ’, meaning ‘stoned’ (from ‘ bato ’, ‘stone’); and ' ginamit ’, meaning ‘used’. Tagalog has borrowed

147-448: A hyphen, but infixes are separated with ⟨angle brackets⟩ . English has almost no true infixes and those it does have are marginal. Most are heard in colloquial speech; although there are other examples, such as in technical terminology , these examples are often more accurately described as tmesis . None of the following are recognized in standard English . The present tense of some Proto-Indo-European verbs , in

168-427: A nasal is followed by a heavy plosive, it is lengthened, i.e. /mˀb/ [mːb] /nˀd/ [nːd] . When not followed by a stop, heavy nasals are long and preceded by a glottal closure , i.e. /ˀm/ [ʔmː] /ˀn/ [ʔnː] . Heavy consonants also attract stress. Some minimal pairs of heavy consonants are: The independent pronouns are: The dual pronouns are derived from the plural via the infix ⟨u⟩ . This parallels

189-552: Is expected by chance. Warembori is written in a Latin alphabet based on the Indonesian . It represents phonetic , rather than phonemic , distinctions. In particular: Infix An infix is an affix inserted inside a word stem (an existing word or the core of a family of words). It contrasts with adfix , a rare term for an affix attached to the outside of a stem, such as a prefix or suffix . When marking text for interlinear glossing , most affixes are separated with

210-584: Is less influenced by them. More recent researchers (Dunn & Reesink, Foley, Kamholz) have classified Warembori and Yoke as papuanised Austronesian languages. Malcolm Ross leaves Yoke unclassified due to lack of data, apparently referring to the fact that Donohue did not publish independent pronouns in Yoke. He did publish subject prefixes on verbs, which are very similar to Warembori, and the singular prefixes are also remarkably similar to two Kwerba family languages, namely Kauwera and Airoran, suggesting either borrowing or

231-816: The English word graduate as a verb; to say "I graduated" a speaker uses the derived form gr um aduate . Khmer , an Austroasiatic language, has seven different infixes. They include the nominalizing infix ⟨b⟩ , which derives l b ɨən 'speed' from lɨən 'fast' and l b ɑɑng ' trial' from lɔɔng 'to test, to haunt', or the agentive ⟨m⟩ deriving c m am 'watchman' from cam 'to watch'. These elements are no longer productive, and occur crystallized in words inherited from Old Khmer . In Malay and Indonesian , there are three infixes ( sisipan ), ⟨el⟩ , ⟨em⟩ , and ⟨er⟩ . All infixes are no longer productive and cannot be used to derive new words. Examples include: In Seri , some verbs form

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252-537: The Lower Mamberamo languages ( Warembori and Yoke ) listed in Foley (2018): The following basic vocabulary words are from Voorhoeve (1975), as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database: Warembori language Warembori ( native name Waremboivoro ) is a moribund language spoken by about 600 people in Warembori village, Mamberamo Hilir District, Mamberamo Raya Regency , located around river mouths (including

273-508: The Spanish diminutive affix becomes an infix ⟨it⟩ in names: Óscar [ˈoskar] → Osquítar [osˈkitar] (cf. standard Oscarito ); Edgar → Edguítar ; Victor → Victítor . This diminutive infix can also be found for the word azúcar , due to its unusual form as a paroxytone word with a final /r/, giving azuquítar . Arabic uses a common infix, ⟨t⟩ ت for Form VIII verbs , usually

294-507: The case of Warembori. Pauwi , now extinct, may have been a Lower Mamberamo language. In 1855, G. J. Fabritius collected numerals from around Geelvink Bay. At the 'Ambermo' (Mamberamo) River at the eastern extent of his coverage, he collected tenama '1' and bisa '2' from an unnamed language. However, he notes that the people only 'count' by means of singular and plural, so it is doubtful whether tenama and bisa are actually numerals. In any case, these words do not resemble

315-422: The case of a certain number of roots, adds a nasal infix ( m , n ) to the basic root . The stems of the other tenses have the root without the infix, and thus these verbs are called nasal-presents . This phenomenon is inherited, and preserved to varying degrees, by some early daughter languages such as Sanskrit , Ancient Greek , Latin language , etc. In Nicaraguan , Costa Rican , and Honduran Spanish ,

336-460: The most basic pronouns, have no parallel in Austronesian. However, the basic pronouns iwi , awi , yi , ki , mi , ti resemble Yoke eβu , ' aβu , iβu , kiβu , miβu , siβu , illustrating the strong Austronesian influence on both languages. Possessive prefixes on nouns are nearly identical to subject prefixes on verbs. The object suffixes are also similar;

357-468: The mouth of the Warembari River ) on the north coast of Papua , Indonesia . Classification is in dispute. Mark Donohue thinks it is related to Yoke , forming together the Lower Mamberamo family. On a 200 word list, they share 33%. Also there are some grammar similarities. According to Donohue, Warembori is heavily influenced by Austronesian languages to the west, in both vocabulary and grammar, Yoke

378-452: The nearby Austronesian Cenderawasih languages , which derive the dual from the plural with du or ru , from * Dua 'two'. The plural pronouns ami , ki , mi , ti , in turn, appear to be Austronesian in origin, from * kami , * kita , * kamiu , * siDa (the latter via * tira ). Although 3sg yi might also derive from Austronesian * ia , 1sg iwi and 2sc awi ,

399-414: The numerals in any language of the area, so the language Fabritius encountered remains unidentified. Reconstructed independent pronouns in proto-Lower Mamberamo are: Foley observes that there are likely similarities with Austronesian languages , likely due to contact. * e 'I' and * a 'you (sg)' are also shared with neighboring Kwerba languages . Basic vocabulary, mostly cognates, of

420-452: The paradigm is very close to that of Yoke, apart from an inclusive-exclusive distinction which is not completely grammaticalized in the case of possessives. The singular prefixes of Warembori and Yoke are nearly identical to the 1sg e- , 2sg a- , 3sg i- of the Kwerba languages Kauwera and Airoran. However, Kwerba has no more basic vocabulary in common with the Lower Mamberamo family than what

441-619: The plural stem with infixation of ⟨tóo⟩ after the first vowel of the root; compare the singular stem ic 'plant (verb)' with the plural stem itóoc . Examples: itíc 'did s/he plant it?' and iti tóo c 'did they sow it?'. Tmesis , the use of a lexical word rather than an affix, is sometimes considered a type of infixation. These are the so-called "expletive infixes", as in abso-bloody-lutely . Since these are not affixes , they are commonly disqualified from being considered infixes. Sequences of adfixes ( prefixes or suffixes ) do not result in infixes: an infix must be internal to

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