The Chinookan languages are a small family of extinct languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples . Although the last known native speaker of any Chinookan language died in 2012, the 2009-2013 American Community Survey found 270 self-identified speakers of Upper Chinook .
30-565: Lower Chinook is a Chinookan language spoken at the mouth of the Columbia River on the west coast of North America . Chinook Jargon is partially based on Chinook. This article related to the Indigenous languages of the Americas is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Chinookan languages Chinookan consisted of three languages with multiple varieties . There
60-429: A few hundreds who mixed with other groups. Around 120 people in 1945, though some 609 were reported in the 1970s, having by then mixed extensively with other groups. Language is now extinct. Chinook Jargon also flourished from 1790s–1830s, then experienced a flood of English and French new vocabulary. It was used by up to 100,000 speakers of 100 mother tongues in the 19th century. Then declined,
90-470: A form of analytic causative that involves two verbs in a single predicate, such as French , Spanish , Italian and Catalan . For example, when French faire is used as a causative, the causee noun phrase cannot occur between it and the next verb. je 1SG . A ferai make+ FUT + 1SG manger eat+ INF les the gâteaux cakes à PREP Jean Jean je ferai manger les gâteaux à Jean 1SG.A make+FUT+1SG eat+INF
120-481: A lexical causative for verbs such as swim , sing , read , or kick . English fell (as in "Paul felled the tree") can be thought of as a lexical causative of fall ("the tree fell"), exemplifying this category. This is considered a lexical change because it is not at all productive. If it were productive, it would be an internal change morphological causative (below). English has verb pairs such as rise and raise , eat and feed , see and show where one
150-417: A link between how "compact" a causative device is and its semantic meaning. The normal English causative verb or control verb used in periphrasis is make rather than cause . Linguistic terms are traditionally given names with a Romance root, which has led some to believe that cause is more prototypical. While cause is a causative, it carries some additional meaning (it implies direct causation) and
180-418: A part-whole relationship, or the owner. Aside from certain secondary irregularities in the third person dual and third person plural, the pronominal subject of the transitive verb differs from the pronominal subject of the intransitive verb only in the case of the third person singular masculine and feminine. The difference between the two sets of forms is for the most part indicated by position and, in part, by
210-614: A qualifying suffix, plural , and final suffix. Initial prefixes serve primarily as nominalizers. Masculine prefixes appear with nouns designating male persons, feminine with those denoting female persons. The neuter may indicate indefiniteness . All are used for nouns referring to objects as well. Masculine prefixes appear with the large animals; feminine for small ones. Masculine prefixes also appear with nouns expressing qualities. The gender -number prefixes are followed by possessive pronominal prefixes. These distinguish possessors by person , clusivity , and number. The possessive prefix for
240-518: A sentence. The subject of an intransitive verb is S, the agent of a transitive verb is A, and the object of a transitive is O. These terms are technically not abbreviations (anymore) for " subject ", " agent ", and " object ", though they can usually be thought of that way. P is often used instead of O in many works. The term underlying is used to describe sentences, phrases, or words that correspond to their causative versions. Often, this underlying sentence may not be explicitly stated. For example, for
270-446: A single variety of the latter now survives: Wasco-Wishram (Wasco and Wishram were originally two separate, similar varieties). In 1990, there were 69 speakers (7 monolinguals) of Wasco-Wishram; in 2001, 5 speakers of Wasco remained; the last fully fluent speaker, Gladys Thompson, died in 2012. Chinook-speaking groups were once powerful in trade, before and during early European contact ( Lewis & Clark ), hence developed
300-755: A subject either causes someone or something else to do or be something or causes a change in state of a non- volitional event. Normally, it brings in a new argument (the causer), A, into a transitive clause, with the original subject S becoming the object O. All languages have ways to express causation but differ in the means. Most, if not all, languages have specific or lexical causative forms (such as English rise → raise , lie → lay , sit → set ). Some languages also have morphological devices (such as inflection ) that change verbs into their causative forms or change adjectives into verbs of becoming . Other languages employ periphrasis , with control verbs , idiomatic expressions or auxiliary verbs . There tends to be
330-485: A text of Guarani , only about 16% of causatives apply to transitives. For some languages, it may not apply to transitive verbs productively and may only apply to verbs that denote abstract action or consumption of food. Additionally, within Athabaskan family, all languages can causativize inactive intransitives, but not all of them can causativize active intransitives or even transitives. A number of languages involve
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#1732852225985360-661: Is essentially the causative correspondent of the other. These pairs are linked semantically by various means, usually involving translation. For example, burn as in "The grass burned" (intransitive) would translate as awa- in Yimas , while burn as in "I burned the grass" (transitive) would translate as ampu- in Yimas. There are eight different morphological processes by which a causative may be marked, roughly organized by compactness: Within morphological causatives, this degree of compactness bears an important variable when considering
390-506: Is less common than make . Also, while most other English causative verbs require a to complement clause (as in "My mom caused me to eat broccoli"), make does not require one ("My mom made me eat broccoli"), at least when it is not being used in the passive voice . Many authors have written extensively on causative constructions and have used a variety of terms, often to talk about the same things. S , A , and O are terms used in morphosyntactic alignment to describe arguments in
420-569: Is some dispute over classification, and there are two ISO 639-3 codes assigned: chh (Chinook, Lower Chinook) and wac (Wasco-Wishram, Upper Chinook). For example, Ethnologue 15e classifies Kiksht as Lower Chinook, while others consider it instead Upper Chinook ( discussion ), and others a separate language. The vowels in the Chinookan languages are /a i ɛ ə u/ . Stress is marked as /á/ . As in many North American languages, verbs constitute complete clauses in themselves. Nominals may accompany
450-432: Is this type of ambitransitive verb that is considered a causative. This is given some anecdotal evidence in that to translate (3b) above into languages with morphological causatives, a morpheme would need to be attached to the verb. Lexical causatives are apparently constrained to involving only one agentive argument. Semantically, the causer is usually marked as the patient. In fact, it is unlikely whether any language has
480-477: The "post-pronominal" -g-, the system is as follows: Verbs stems may be simplex or compound, the second member indicating direction, including motion out of, from water to shore or inland, toward water, into, down or up. Suffixes include repetitive, causative , involuntary passive , completive, stative , purposive, future, usitative , successful completive and so on. Nouns contain an initial prefix, pronominal prefix, possessive prefix, inner nominalizer , root,
510-501: The Chinook Jargon – a pre-European contact language, with lexicon from at least Chinook, Chehalis, and Nootka or Nuu-chah-nulth. Chinook people were quickly diminished by European diseases: Numbered around 800 persons in 1800; they mixed with Chehalis (in fact, the very word Chinook is a Chehalis word for those who lived on the south of the river). Most of the language family became extinct as separate groups by 1900, except
540-484: The S of the intransitive corresponds to the O of the transitive: These are further divided into two more types, based on speakers' intuition. Some, like spill in (2), are primarily transitive and secondarily intransitive. Other verbs like this include smash and extend. Other verbs, such as trip in (3) go the other way: they are primarily intransitive and secondarily transitive. Other examples of this type include explode , melt , dissolve , walk , and march . It
570-401: The dative to the indirect object . Reflexive prefixes can serve as reciprocals and as medio-passives . When the reflexive follows can ergative–absolutive pronoun sequence, it indicates that one indirectly affected is the same as the ergative. When it follows an absolutive–dative pronoun sequence, it indicates that one indirectly affected is associated with the absolutive, perhaps as the whole in
600-455: The example sentence above, John is the causer. The causee is the argument that actually does the action in a causativized sentence. It is usually present in both the underlying and derived sentences. Bill is the causee in the above example. There are various ways of encoding causation, which form somewhat of a continuum of "compactness." Lexical causatives are common in the world's languages. There are three kinds of lexical causatives,
630-478: The languages. Kiksht shows six way tense distinctions: mythic past , remote past, recent past, immediate past, present , and future . The pronominal prefixes are obligatory, whether free nominals occur in the clause or not. Three can be seen in the Kathlamet verb. The ergative refers to the agent of a transitive verb , the absolutive to the patient of a transitive or the single argument of an intransitive , and
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#1732852225985660-458: The semantics of the two processes. For example, mechanisms that do not change the length of the word (internal change, tone change) are shorter than those that lengthen it. Of those that lengthen it, shorter changes are more compact than longer. Verbs can be classified into four categories, according to how susceptible they are to morphological causativization: This hierarchy has some exceptions, but it does generally hold true. For example, given
690-402: The sentence "'John made Bill drive the truck'", the underlying sentence would be Bill drove the truck . This has also been called the base situation . A derived sentence would be the causativized variant of the underlying sentence. The causer is the new argument in a causative expression that causes the action to be done. The causer is the new argument brought into a derived sentence. In
720-693: The third person singular is -ga- when the noun itself is feminine, neuter, dual, or plural. It is -tca- when the noun itself is masculine. It is preceded by the gender-number prefixes: The possessive prefix for the first person singular ("my") is –gE (Wishram -g-, -k-; -x̩- before k-stops) when the noun is feminine, neuter, dual or plural, but -tcE-, -tci- (Wishram -tc-) when the noun is masculine. The possessive prefixes are followed by noun stem, perhaps including another nominalizer. Nominal suffixes indicate emphasis or contrast, specificity, succession in time, definiteness, plurality, and time, location, or similarity. There were Lower and Upper Chinookan groups, but only
750-447: The unifying factor being that the idea of causation is part of the semantics of the verb itself. (English, for example, employs all three of these kinds of lexical causatives.) On the surface, lexical causatives look essentially the same as a regular transitive verb. There are a few reasons why this is not true. The first is that transitive verbs generally do not have an intransitive counterpart but lexical causatives do. The semantics of
780-452: The use of a "post-pronominal" particle -g- which indicates that the preceding pronominal element is used as the subject of a transitive verb. The phonetic parallelism would then be perfect among the absolutive, ergative, and possessive (see below). If we compare the theoretical forms *ag- "she" and *itc- "he" with the remaining subjective forms of the transitive verb, we obtain at once a perfectly regular and intelligible set of forms. Including
810-446: The vase.") These are split into two varieties: agentive and patientive ambitransitives. Agentive ambitransitives (also called S=A ambitransitives) include verbs such as walk and knit because the S of the intransitive corresponds to the A of the transitive. For example: This type of ambitransitive does not show a causative relationship. For patientive ambitransitives (also called S=O ambitransitives), such as trip and spill ,
840-442: The verbs show the difference as well. A regular transitive verb implies a single event while a lexical causative implies a realization of an event: Sentence (b) is judged ungrammatical because it goes against the successful event implied by the verb melt . Some languages, including English, have ambitransitive verbs like break , burn or awake , which may either be intransitive or transitive ("The vase broke" vs. "I broke
870-581: The verbs, but they have adjunct status, functioning as appositives to the pronominal affixes. Word order functions purely pragmatically; constituents appear in decreasing order of newsworthiness. Clauses are combined by juxtaposition or particles, rather than subordinating inflection . Verbs may contain an initial tense or aspect prefix, ergative pronominal prefix, obligatory absolutive prefix, dative prefix, reflexive / reciprocal /middle prefix, adverbial prefix, directional prefix, and verb stem. The number of tense/aspect prefix distinctions varies among
900-643: Was recorded by linguists in the 1930s, and died out by the early 1900s. The Chinook people were finally recognized by the US Govt. in Jan. 2001, but in the 90-day grace period the Quinault Tribe filed an appeal stating that the Chinook Nation made mistakes when applying for federal recognition. Causative In linguistics , a causative ( abbreviated CAUS ) is a valency -increasing operation that indicates that
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