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86-403: The Cognitive Abilities Test ( CogAT ) is a group-administered K–12 assessment published by Riverside Insights and intended to estimate students' learned reasoning and problem solving abilities through a battery of verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal test items. The test purports to assess students' acquired reasoning abilities while also predicting achievement scores when administered with

172-471: A high IQ society for those who score at or above the 99th percentile on a test of intelligence. Forms 7 and 8 provide comparable scores and may be administered separately or together. Form 7 of the CogAT was designed to be appropriate for non-native English speakers. Each level of the CogAT includes test batteries with verbal, quantitative, or nonverbal items. Scores are reported separately for each category, and

258-573: A better understanding about the effects of peer pressure, and this research will allow parents to handle and understand their children's behaviors and obstacles they will face due to their peer groups. Learning how peer pressure impacts individuals is a step to minimizing the negative effects it leads to. Success of peer relationships is linked to later psychological development and to academic achievement . Therefore, if one does not have successful peer relationships it may lead to developmental delays and poor academic achievement—perhaps even in-completion of

344-487: A crucial role in shaping body image and satisfaction. The term peer pressure is often used to describe instances where an individual feels indirectly pressured into changing their behavior to match that of their peers. Taking up smoking and underage drinking are two of the best known examples. In spite of the often negative connotations of the term, peer pressure can be used positively, for example, to encourage other peers to study, or not to engage in activities such as

430-445: A good measure of mastery of the subject, but difficult to score completely accurately. A history test written for high reliability will be entirely multiple choice. It isn't as good at measuring knowledge of history, but can easily be scored with great precision. We may generalize from this. The more reliable our estimate is of what we purport to measure, the less certain we are that we are actually measuring that aspect of attainment. It

516-487: A high school degree. Children with poor peer relationships may also experience job related and marital problems later in life. Several studies have shown that peer groups are powerful agents of risk behaviors in adolescence. Adolescents typically replace family with peers regarding social and leisure activities, and many problematic behaviors occur in the context of these groups. A study done in 2012 focused on adolescents' engagement in risk behaviors. Participants completed

602-498: A more equal distribution of racial groups, there can be more socialization across peer groups. Cross racial peers groups can be very beneficial, lowering prejudice and increasing prosocial behaviors. Having a cross racial friend has also been shown to give youth a higher status and feel more socially satisfied. Diverse peer groups also lower the feelings of victimization felt by youth. An effective approach to promoting peer relationships among adolescents with disabilities may require

688-614: A popular group and perceived more group conformity and leadership within their groups than pre- and late adolescents. Early and middle adolescents also reported more negative interactions and fewer positive interactions with group members and more negative interactions with those not part of their peer groups. Girls reported having more positive group interactions, being more bothered by negative interactions, and having more permeable group boundaries. Boys reported more negative interactions with those outside their groups and are more likely to have leaders in their peer groups. Researchers believe that

774-447: A positive effect on mental and physical health . Cliques are small groups typically defined by common interests or by friendship. Cliques typically have 2–12 members and tend to be formed by age, gender, race, and social class. Clique members are usually the same in terms of academics and risk behaviors. Cliques can serve as an agent of socialization and social control. Being part of a clique can be advantageous since it may provide

860-439: A question paper, vague marking instructions and poorly trained markers. Traditionally, the reliability of an assessment is based on the following: The reliability of a measurement x can also be defined quantitatively as: R x = V t / V x {\displaystyle R_{\text{x}}=V_{\text{t}}/V_{\text{x}}} where R x {\displaystyle R_{\text{x}}}

946-771: A self-report measure of identity commitment, which explores values, beliefs, and aspirations, as well as a self-report that measures perceived peer group pressure and control. Both peer group pressure and control were positively related to risky behaviors. However, adolescents who were more committed to a personal identity had lower rates of risk behaviors. Overall, this study shows us that adolescent identity development may help prevent negative effects of peer pressure in high-risk adolescents. Social behaviors can be promoted or discouraged by social groups , and several studies have shown that aggression and prosociality are susceptible to peer influence. A longitudinal study done in 2011 focused on these two behaviors. A sample of adolescents

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1032-551: A sense of autonomy, a secure social environment, and overall well-being. Crowds are larger, more vaguely defined groups that may not have a friendship base. Crowds serve as peer groups, and they increase in importance during early adolescence, and decrease by late adolescence. The level of involvement in adult institutions and peer culture describes crowds. At an early age, the peer group becomes an important part of socialization Unlike other agents of socialization , such as family and school, peer groups allow children to escape

1118-431: A set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under

1204-401: A student's non-verbal, verbal, quantitative and spatial abilities. The CAT4 tests are levelled by age / year group and are also used by many schools as part of their admissions process. Educational assessment As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable student learning outcomes, provides a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implements

1290-504: A suitable program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves students assessing themselves. Forward-looking assessment asks those being assessed to consider themselves in hypothetical future situations. Performance-based assessment is similar to summative assessment, as it focuses on achievement. It is often aligned with the standards-based education reform and outcomes-based education movement. Though ideally, they are significantly different from

1376-446: A suitable teacher conducted through placement testing , i.e. the tests that colleges and universities use to assess college readiness and place students into their initial classes. Placement evaluation, also referred to as pre-assessment, initial assessment, or threshold knowledge test (TKT), is conducted before instruction or intervention to establish a baseline from which individual student growth can be measured. This type of assessment

1462-409: A systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and uses the collected information to give feedback on the improvement of students' learning. Assessment is an important aspect of educational process which determines the level of accomplishments of students. The final purpose of assessment practices in education depends on

1548-409: A teacher (or peer ) or the learner (e.g., through a self-assessment ), providing feedback on a student's work and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes. Formative assessments can take the form of diagnostic, standardized tests, quizzes, oral questions, or draft work. Formative assessments are carried out concurrently with instructions and the results may count. The formative assessments aim

1634-646: A test. In order to have positive washback, instructional planning can be used. In the field of evaluation , and in particular educational evaluation in North America, the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards were published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition) were published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards were published in 2003. Each publication presents and elaborates

1720-486: A traditional multiple choice test, they are most commonly associated with standards-based assessment which use free-form responses to standard questions scored by human scorers on a standards-based scale, meeting, falling below or exceeding a performance standard rather than being ranked on a curve. A well-defined task is identified and students are asked to create, produce or do something often in settings that involve real-world application of knowledge and skills. Proficiency

1806-411: A unique context for cognitive , social, and emotional development . Modern research echoes these sentiments, showing that social and emotional gains are indeed provided by peer interaction. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory focuses on the importance of a child's culture and notes that a child is continually acting in social interactions with others. He also focuses on language development and identifies

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1892-505: A venue for teaching members gender roles . Through gender-role socialization , group members learn about sex differences, and social and cultural expectations. While boys and girls differ greatly, there is not a one-to-one link between sex and gender roles with males always being masculine and females always being feminine . Both genders can contain different levels of masculinity and femininity. Peer groups can consist of all males, all females, or both males and females. Studies show that

1978-416: A way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best-known example of norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass ("passing" in this context means being accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to year depending on

2064-400: A written test of driving knowledge, and what a driver is able to do, such as through a performance assessment of actual driving. Teachers frequently complain that some examinations do not properly assess the syllabus upon which the examination is based; they are, effectively, questioning the validity of the exam. Validity of an assessment is generally gauged through examination of evidence in

2150-479: Is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false answers, multiple choice , multiple-response and matching questions while Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays. Objective assessment

2236-417: Is an important role in an individual's development. Erik Erikson emphasized the importance of identity formation , and he illustrated the steps one takes in developing his or her sense of self. He believed this process occurs throughout one's entire life. Peer interactions have a significant impact on adolescents, developing empathy, conflict resolution, and interpersonal skills, these relationships also play

2322-422: Is authentic when it is contextualized, contains natural language and meaningful, relevant, and interesting topic, and replicates real world experiences. This principle refers to the consequence of an assessment on teaching and learning within classrooms. Washback can be positive and negative. Positive washback refers to the desired effects of a test, while negative washback refers to the negative consequences of

2408-449: Is believed that positive interactions outside of peer groups increase and negative interactions outside of peer groups decrease by late adolescence because older adolescents feel more comfortable and have less need to control the behaviours of others. Findings that boys have more leaders are consistent with research showing that boys partake in more dominance struggles. A questionnaire was handed out to 58 males and 57 females, aged 14–15 in

2494-438: Is demonstrated by providing an extended response. Performance formats are further classified into products and performances. The performance may result in a product, such as a painting, portfolio, paper or exhibition, or it may consist of a performance, such as a speech, athletic skill, musical recital or reading. Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorized as either objective or subjective. Objective assessment

2580-431: Is determined and maintained by such factors as group communication , group consensus, and group conformity concerning attitude and behavior. As members of peer groups interconnect and agree on what defines them as a group, a normative code arises. This normative code can become very rigid, such as when deciding on group behavior and clothing attire. Member deviation from the strict normative code can lead to rejection from

2666-405: Is given a numerical score or grade based on student performance, whereas an informal assessment does not contribute to a student's final grade. An informal assessment usually occurs in a more casual manner and may include observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics , performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self-evaluation, and discussion. Internal assessment

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2752-411: Is often divided into initial, formative, and summative categories for the purpose of considering different objectives for assessment practices. (1) Placement assessment – Placement evaluation may be used to place students according to prior achievement or level of knowledge, or personal characteristics, at the most appropriate point in an instructional sequence, in a unique instructional strategy, or with

2838-434: Is set and marked by the school (i.e. teachers), students get the mark and feedback regarding the assessment. External assessment is set by the governing body, and is marked by non-biased personnel, some external assessments give much more limited feedback in their marking. However, in tests such as Australia's NAPLAN, the criterion addressed by students is given detailed feedback in order for their teachers to address and compare

2924-415: Is the conditions of test taking process, test-related which is basically related to the nature of a test. Valid assessment is one that measures what it is intended to measure. For example, it would not be valid to assess driving skills through a written test alone. A more valid way of assessing driving skills would be through a combination of tests that help determine what a driver knows, such as through

3010-406: Is the driving test when learner drivers are measured against a range of explicit criteria (such as "Not endangering other road users"). (6) Norm-referenced assessment (colloquially known as " grading on the curve "), typically using a norm-referenced test , is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is relative to the student body undertaking the assessment, It is effectively

3096-642: Is the reliability in the observed (test) score, x; V t {\displaystyle V_{\text{t}}} and V x {\displaystyle V_{\text{x}}} are the variability in 'true' (i.e., candidate's innate performance) and measured test scores respectively. R x {\displaystyle R_{\text{x}}} can range from 0 (completely unreliable), to 1 (completely reliable). There are four types of reliability: student-related which can be personal problems, sickness, or fatigue , rater-related which includes bias and subjectivity , test administration-related which

3182-425: Is to see if the students understand the instruction before doing a summative assessment. (3) Summative assessment – This is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade, and are evaluative. Summative assessments are made to summarize what the students have learned in order to know whether they understand

3268-418: Is used to know what the student's skill level is about the subject, it can also help the teacher to explain the material more efficiently. These assessments are generally not graded. (2) Formative assessment – This is generally carried out throughout a course or project. It is also referred to as "educative assessment," which is used to help learning. In an educational setting, a formative assessment might be

3354-528: Is well suited to the increasingly popular computerized or online assessment format. Some have argued that the distinction between objective and subjective assessments is neither useful nor accurate because, in reality, there is no such thing as "objective" assessment. In fact, all assessments are created with inherent biases built into decisions about relevant subject matter and content, as well as cultural (class, ethnic, and gender) biases. Test results can be compared against an established criterion, or against

3440-404: Is well to distinguish between "subject-matter" validity and "predictive" validity. The former, used widely in education, predicts the score a student would get on a similar test but with different questions. The latter, used widely in the workplace, predicts performance. Thus, a subject-matter-valid test of knowledge of driving rules is appropriate while a predictively valid test would assess whether

3526-422: The theoretical framework of the practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the origin of knowledge, and the process of learning. The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities teachers use to help students learn and to guage student progress. Assessment can be divided for the sake of convenience using the following categorizations: Assessment

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3612-497: The Midlands region of the UK. The first section dealt with group structure and activities of participants' peer groups. Participants were asked how many people were in their group, the gender composition of the group, frequency of group meetings, and the group's usual meeting places. The second section addressed the participants' levels of identification with their peer groups. The next section of

3698-772: The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) on January 8, 2002. The NCLB Act reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. President Johnson signed the ESEA to help fight the War on Poverty and helped fund elementary and secondary schools. President Johnson's goal was to emphasize equal access to education and establish high standards and accountability. The NCLB Act required states to develop assessments in basic skills. To receive federal school funding, states had to give these assessments to all students at select grade level. In

3784-515: The Theory of Interpersonal Relations. Sullivan described friendships as providing the following functions: (a) offering consensual validation, (b) bolstering feelings of self-worth, (c) providing affection and a context for intimate disclosure, (d) promoting interpersonal sensitivity, and (e) setting the foundation for romantic and parental relationships. Sullivan believed these functions developed during childhood and that true friendships were formed around

3870-622: The U.S., the No Child Left Behind Act mandates standardized testing nationwide. These tests align with state curriculum and link teacher, student, district, and state accountability to the results of these tests. Proponents of NCLB argue that it offers a tangible method of gauging educational success, holding teachers and schools accountable for failing scores, and closing the achievement gap across class and ethnicity. Opponents of standardized testing dispute these claims, arguing that holding educators accountable for test results leads to

3956-718: The accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance. In the UK, an award in Training, Assessment and Quality Assurance (TAQA) is available to assist staff learn and develop good practice in relation to educational assessment in adult, further and work-based education and training contexts. Due to grade inflation , standardized tests can have higher validity than unstandardized exam scores. Recently increasing graduation rates can be partially attributed to grade inflation . The following table summarizes

4042-568: The age of 9 or 10. Social learning theorists such as John B. Watson , B.F. Skinner , and Albert Bandura , all argue for the influences of the social group in learning and development. Behaviourism , Operant Learning Theory, and Cognitive Social Learning Theory all consider the role the social world plays on development. In The Nurture Assumption and No Two Alike , psychologist Judith Rich Harris suggests that an individual's peer group significantly influences their intellectual and personal development. Several longitudinal studies support

4128-558: The co-normed Iowa Tests . The test was originally published in 1954 as the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test , after the psychologists who authored the first version of it, Irving Lorge and Robert L. Thorndike . The CogAT is one of several tests used in the United States to help teachers or other school staff make student placement decisions for gifted education programs, and is accepted for admission to Intertel ,

4214-408: The conclusion of a class, course, semester or academic year while assessment for learning is generally formative in nature and is used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next steps for individual learners and the class. A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment . Diagnostic assessment measures a student's current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying

4300-460: The conjecture that peer groups significantly affect scholastic achievement, particularly when adult involvement is low. Relatively few studies have examined the effect peer groups have on tests of cognitive ability. However, there is some evidence that peer groups influence tests of cognitive ability. Peer groups provide perspective outside of the individual's viewpoints. Members inside peer groups also learn to develop relationships with others in

4386-439: The decrease in conformity throughout adolescence relates to the decrease in importance of leadership in late adolescence because having a group leader provides a person to model oneself after. They also note the relationship between the importance of being in a popular peer group and conformity. Both become less important in late adolescence, showing that it is less important to conform when the value of group membership decreases. It

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4472-545: The difference between formative and summative assessment with the following analogy: When the cook tastes the soup, that's formative. When the guests taste the soup, that's summative. Summative and formative assessment are often referred to in a learning context as assessment of learning and assessment for learning respectively. Assessment of learning is generally summative in nature and intended to measure learning outcomes and report those outcomes to students, parents and administrators. Assessment of learning mostly occurs at

4558-750: The direct supervision of adults. Among peers, children learn to form relationships on their own, and have the chance to discuss interests that adults may not share with children, such as clothing and popular music, or may not permit, such as drugs and sex. Peer groups can have great influence or peer pressure on each other's behavior, depending on the amount of pressure. However, currently more than 23 percent of children globally lack enough connections with their age group, and their cognitive, emotional and social development are delayed than other kids. Developmental psychologists , Lev Vygotsky , Jean Piaget , Erik Erikson , Harry Stack Sullivan , and social learning theorists have all argued that peer relationships provide

4644-498: The end, diagnostic assessment focuses on the whole difficulties that occurred during the learning process. Jay McTighe and Ken O'Connor proposed seven practices to effective learning. One of them is about showing the criteria of the evaluation before the test and another the importance of pre-assessment to know what the skill levels of a student are before giving instructions. Giving a lot of feedback and encouragements are other practices. Educational researcher Robert Stake explains

4730-405: The following categories: Others are: A good assessment has both validity and reliability, plus the other quality attributes noted above for a specific context and purpose. In practice, an assessment is rarely totally valid or totally reliable. A ruler which is marked wrongly will always give the same (wrong) measurements. It is very reliable, but not very valid. Asking random individuals to tell

4816-471: The future. Adolescence is also characterized by physical changes, new emotions, and sexual urges, and teenagers are likely to participate in sexual activity . A longitudinal study done in 2012 followed a group of adolescents for thirteen years. Self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, counselor ratings, and parent reports were collected, and results showed a strong correlation between deviant peer groups and sexual promiscuity . Many teens claimed that

4902-479: The group is involved in negative activities. Children are less likely to accept those who are different from them. Friendship and support is important for people to have an active social life. Similarly, it is equally important to people with disability as it can help them to feel included, valued and happier. Social interaction among peers may influence development; quality of life outcomes. This interaction and positive relationship benefit subjective wellbeing and have

4988-523: The group. Peer groups (friends group) can help individuals form their own identity. Identity formation is a developmental process where a person acquires a sense of self. One of the major factors that influence the formation of a person's identity is his or her peers. Studies have shown that peers provide normative regulation, and that they provide a staging ground for the practice of social behaviors. This allows individuals to experiment with roles and discover their identities. The identity formation process

5074-462: The highest preference to spend time with, they both nominated peers of their same race over peers of different races. This is especially prevalent in classrooms and schools that have a clear cut majority and minority racial groups. Though benefits of homophily are met, preference for one's own racial group can lead to rejection of the racial out group, which can cause stress for both groups particularly in females. For classrooms and schools that have

5160-419: The idea that the society, not just the family, influences one's ego and identity through developmental stages. Erikson went on to describe how peer pressure is a key event during the adolescences stage of psychosocial development. In his Latency stage, which includes children from 6–12 years old and this is when the adolescents begin to develop relationships among their peers. Harry Stack Sullivan has developed

5246-567: The ingroup in two ways: the ingroup was always associated with a greater number of positive characteristics compared to the outgroup, and the more a participant identified with the ingroup, the higher their evaluations were for it. Consistent with the dictionary definition of peer groups, youth tend to form groups based on similarities. It has been found that one of these similarities is by race. Preference for same race grows stronger as youth develop. When Latino and Caucasian youth were given surveys asking them to indicate who in their school they had

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5332-607: The main theoretical frameworks behind almost all the theoretical and research work, and the instructional practices in education (one of them being, of course, the practice of assessment). These different frameworks have given rise to interesting debates among scholars. Concerns over how best to apply assessment practices across public school systems have largely focused on questions about the use of high-stakes testing and standardized tests, often used to gauge student progress, teacher quality, and school-, district-, or statewide educational success. For most researchers and practitioners,

5418-410: The majority of peer groups are unisex. Adolescent peer groups provide support as teens assimilate into adulthood. Major changes include: decreasing dependence on parents, increasing feelings of self-sufficiency, and connecting with a much larger social network. Adolescents are expanding their perspective beyond the family and learning how to negotiate relationships with others in different parts of

5504-475: The ones discussed above. Although peer pressure is not isolated to one age group, it is usually most common during the adolescent stage. Adolescence is a period characterized by experimentation, and adolescents typically spend a lot of time with their peers in social contexts. Teenagers compel each other to go along with certain beliefs or behaviors, and studies have shown that boys are more likely to give in to it than girls. There has been much research done to gain

5590-442: The performance of other students, or against previous performance: (5) Criterion-referenced assessment , typically using a criterion-referenced test , as the name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and objective) criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often but not always used to establish a person's competence (whether he/she can do something). The best-known example of criterion-referenced assessment

5676-670: The person's beliefs and behaviour. During adolescence, peer groups tend to face dramatic changes. Adolescents tend to spend more time with their peers and have less adult supervision. Peer groups give a sense of security and identity. A study found that during the adolescent phase as adolescents spend double time with their peers compared to the time youth spend with their parents. Adolescents' communication shifts during this time as well. They prefer to talk about school and their careers with their parents, and they enjoy talking about sex and other interpersonal relationships with their peers. Children look to join peer groups who accept them, even if

5762-485: The potential driver could follow those rules. This principle refers to the time and cost constraints during the construction and administration of an assessment instrument. Meaning that the test should be economical to provide. The format of the test should be simple to understand. Moreover, solving a test should remain within suitable time. It is generally simple to administer. Its assessment procedure should be particular and time-efficient. The assessment instrument

5848-574: The practice of " teaching to the test ." Additionally, many argue that the focus on standardized testing encourages teachers to equip students with a narrow set of skills that enhance test performance without actually fostering a deeper understanding of subject matter or key principles within a knowledge domain. The assessments which have caused the most controversy in the U.S. are the use of high school graduation examinations , which are used to deny diplomas to students who have attended high school for four years, but cannot demonstrate that they have learned

5934-420: The quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not vary from year to year (unless the criteria change). (7) Ipsative assessment is self-comparison either in the same domain over time, or comparative to other domains within the same student. Assessment can be either formal or informal . Formal assessment usually implies a written document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. A formal assessment

6020-426: The question is not whether tests should be administered at all—there is a general consensus that, when administered in useful ways, tests can offer useful information about student progress and curriculum implementation, as well as offering formative uses for learners. The real issue, then, is whether testing practices as currently implemented can provide these services for educators and students. President Bush signed

6106-521: The questionnaire was an intergroup comparison task in which participants compared their peer group to an outgroup. The comparison referred to how sixteen different adjectives "fit" or "described" both their ingroup and outgroup. The final part of the questionnaire was designed to check the manipulation of the adjective valence. In this section, participants rated the desirability of the above sixteen adjectives in their own opinions. Findings supported social identity theory as participants consistently favoured

6192-1098: The reasons for having sex at a young age include peer pressure or pressure from their partner. The effects of sexual activity at a young age are of great concern. Pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases are only a few of the consequences that can occur. In peer-dominated contexts, functional diversity may lead to marginalization and exclusion. Socially excluded children may have unsatisfying peer relationships, low self-esteem, and lack of achievement motivation, which affect their social and academic aspects of life, mental health, and general well-being. Individuals with disabilities encounter challenges in peer relationships, including deficits in social skills such as emotion detection, conflict resolution, and conceptual understanding. In one cross-sectional, correlational study, four different developmental stages were examined: preadolescence (Grades 5 and 6), early adolescence (Grades 7 and 8), middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10) and late adolescence (Grades 11 and 12). Self-report measures were used in which adolescents completed questionnaires. First,

6278-406: The required material when writing exams. Opponents say that no student who has put in four years of seat time should be denied a high school diploma merely for repeatedly failing a test, or even for not knowing the required material. High-stakes tests have been blamed for causing sickness and test anxiety in students and teachers, and for teachers choosing to narrow the curriculum towards what

6364-425: The social system. Peers, particularly group members, become important social referents for teaching other members customs, social norms, and different ideologies. Positive peer relationships improve social interaction and enhance positive engagement levels in adolescents with and without disabilities. Peers foster overall well-being by offering practical, emotional, and social support. Peer groups can also serve as

6450-502: The social system. Peers, particularly group members, become important social referents. Peer groups also influence individual members' attitudes and behaviours on many cultural and social issues, such as: drug use, violence, and academic achievement. and even the development and expression of prejudice. Peer groups provide an influential social setting in which group norms are developed and enforced through socialization processes that promote in-group similarity. Peer groups' cohesion

6536-524: The student's learning achievements and also to plan for the future. In general, high-quality assessments are considered those with a high level of reliability and validity . Other general principles are practicality , authenticity and washback. Reliability relates to the consistency of an assessment. A reliable assessment is one that consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar) cohort of students. Various factors affect reliability—including ambiguous questions, too many options within

6622-471: The students rated the importance of being in a popular group. Next, positive and negative behaviour were assessed. The extent to which students were bothered by negative behaviour targeted at them by others in their groups was also assessed. Structural group properties were also examined, including: group leadership or status hierarchy, group permeability, and group conformity. Researchers found that middle adolescents reported placing more importance on being in

6708-434: The subject matter well. This type of assessment is typically graded (e.g. pass/fail, 0–100) and can take the form of tests, exams or projects. Summative assessments are basically used to determine whether a student has passed or failed a class. A criticism of summative assessments is that they are reductive, and learners discover how well they have acquired knowledge too late for it to be of use. (4) Diagnostic assessment – At

6794-410: The teacher believes will be tested. In an exercise designed to make children comfortable about testing, a Spokane, Washington newspaper published a picture of a monster that feeds on fear. The published image is purportedly the response of a student who was asked to draw a picture of what she thought of the state assessment. Other critics, such as Washington State University's Don Orlich , question

6880-529: The three batteries may be administered separately. The Cognitive Abilities Test Fourth Edition ( CAT4 ) is an alternative set of cognitive tests used by many schools in the UK, Ireland, and internationally. The tests were created by GL Education to assess cognitive abilities and predict the future performance of a student. It consists of eight subtests: figure classification; figure matrices; verbal classification; verbal analogies; number analogies; number series; figure analysis; figure recognition - to evaluate

6966-482: The time without looking at a clock or watch is sometimes used as an example of an assessment which is valid, but not reliable. The answers will vary between individuals, but the average answer is probably close to the actual time. In many fields, such as medical research, educational testing, and psychology, there will often be a trade-off between reliability and validity. A history test written for high validity will have many essay and fill-in-the-blank questions. It will be

7052-520: The use of expensive, holistically graded tests, rather than inexpensive multiple-choice "bubble tests", to measure the quality of both the system and individuals for very large numbers of students. Other prominent critics of high-stakes testing include Fairtest and Alfie Kohn . Peer group In sociology , a peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar interests ( homophily ), age, background, or social status. The members of this group are likely to influence

7138-446: The use of test items far beyond standard cognitive levels for students' age. Compared to portfolio assessments, simple multiple-choice tests are much less expensive, less prone to disagreement between scorers, and can be scored quickly enough to be returned before the end of the school year. Standardized tests (all students take the same test under the same conditions) often use multiple-choice tests for these reasons. Orlich criticizes

7224-488: The world based on their own experiences. In addition Piaget identified with aspects of development, occurring from middle childhood onwards, for which peer groups are essential. He suggested that children's speech to peers is less egocentric than their speech to adults. Egocentric speech is referring to the speech that is not adapted to what the listener just said. Erikson's stages of psychosocial development include eight stages ranging from birth to old age. He has emphasized

7310-548: The zone of proximal development. The Zone of Proximal development is defined as the gap between what a student can do alone and what the student can achieve through teacher assistance. The values and attitudes of the peer group are essential elements in learning. Those who surround themselves with academically focused peers will be more likely to internalize this type of behavior. Piaget's theory of cognitive development identifies four stages of cognitive development. He believes that children actively construct their understanding of

7396-434: Was followed over a one-year period, and results showed that adolescents who joined an aggressive group were more likely to increase their aggression levels. Also, adolescents were likely to display prosocial behaviors that were similar to the consistent behaviors of the group they were in. An adolescent's peer group plays a role in shaping him or her into an adult, and the lack of positive behavior can lead to consequences in

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