Lonquén (Mapudungun for "on the low lands") is a town in Chile , located between the communities of Talagante and Isla de Maipo , within the Metropolitan Region of Santiago .
110-609: In pre-Columbian times, Lonquén was occupied by the cultures Bato and Llolleo . Later, it was a place of connection between the Aymaras and the Mapuches . When the Spaniards arrived, they created two estates under Francisco Ruiz-Tagle Vestibules. They were inherited by his son Caesar. In 1928, the land was divided in three estates: Sorrento, Santa Teresa and the Recreation, in which the economy
220-479: A governor by the new Sapa Inca to ensure the payment of "1000 bird cages from the Andes and the puna grasslands " as tribute in the newly annexed Cuyos ayllu. Capac Yupanqui ( c. 1320 – c. 1350 ) inherited a Cusco under the direct interest of his larger neighbours -now competitors- as it was no longer a small invader chiefdom struggling for survival, but one fighting to gain power. He continued
330-457: A Huallacan woman- to become the Auqui , probably with the intention of having influence over the government. They planned to ambush the young prince in the town of Paulo, and so sent an invitation, to which his father agreed, but had his son be accompanied by 40 Rinriyuq (Inca noblemen) as bodyguards with the order to kill anyone who posed a threat to him. Despite the precautions, both were killed in
440-549: A climate altogether unsuited to their constitution), or to the Silver mines of Potosí , Chayanta , Oruro , &c. (where from forced labour, ill-treatment, and insufficient food, they succumbed equally fast, only to be replaced by fresh supplies similarly obtained). In 1542, the Dominican friar, Bartolomé de las Casas (1474 - 1566) published his testimony of the abuse of the Aymara by
550-658: A few days the temples that were there. The Chankas , positioned on the limits of the Apurimac River after the defeat of the Quechuas, were now in a threatening position to invade both Cusco and the Ayarmaca chiefdom. Probably confident in their victories until then, they weren't prepared for the sudden attack by the forces of Inca Roca, who recruited mercenaries from the Canas and Canchis independent chiefdoms, making them flee all
660-486: A few years to farm in the surrounding areas of nearby villages or independent ayllus. From Pacaritambo , they first stopped at Huanancancha, where Manco Capac took Mama Ocllo in servinacuy ( concubinage ); the next stop was on Tampuquiro , where possibly Sinchi Roca was born, and then they stopped at Pallata , here Sinchi Roca 's first haircut was celebrated. They continued their advance and reached Quirirmanta , where Manco Capac finally married Mama Ocllo according to
770-537: A ginseng or turnip like vegetable; onion ( Trichlora ); olluco ( Ullucus ), a root vegetable that looks like a small potato; Yacón , a root vegetable called ground apple and cherimoya (Annona). The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is indigenous to the region of the Aymara. Wild species are no longer eaten but are still found. Peru has 47% of all wild potato species. Cultivated species are a dietary staple. Potato can be stored for many years as Chuño . Potatoes are exposed to freezing temperatures overnight then dried during
880-571: A house's thatched roof ablaze instantly. As the people left their houses, an old woman claimed to have witnessed the stone fall from the sky, believing it to be a sign of divine retribution for their rebellious actions. Fearing defeat, they crossed the river on rafts bearing offerings to reconcile with the Incas. Viracocha pretended to be uninterested but then informed them that, had they not surrendered that day, he would have beaten them with large rafts that he had already ordered built. They subsequently sealed
990-429: A leader all the territory gained would be lost. As the conversation heated up, a woman proposed Hatun Tupac, nephew of the former monarch, arguing that he deserved it. Sources differ on whether or not he was the son of Yahuar Huaca, although what is clear is that he belonged to Hanan Cusco and that he was presented to the rest of the world as his legitimate son and successor, probably with the intention to completely erase
1100-607: A minor rebellion led by the Pacaycacha in the Pisac valley. This uprising in Cusco's vicinity served as an opportunity for the Muyna and Pinagua chiefdoms to revolt once again, this time with support from the people of Rondocancha and Casacancha, who in turn were followed by attacks from Ayarmacas and Guaypomarcas. However, they were all defeated thanks to the military command of Vicaquirao and Apo Mayta,
1210-719: A peace agreement, and Viracocha provided one of his women to the Caytomarca sinchi as a gift. While Viracocha's forces were outside the capital, a brother of Yahuar Huaca assassinated the Inca raptin (a substitute for the Sapa Inca's absence in Cusco) with some of Hurin Cusco members' aid. However, he failed to garner enough support from the public or the rest of the nobility before ultimately taking his own life with poison, fearing punishment. Despite this, Viracocha remained uneasy and decided to resolve
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#17332019376171320-473: A skirmish they were forced to withdraw; from there he was returned to Cusco, and as a reward for the great favor done, the Antas were treated as brothers of the capital from then on. In order to put an end to hostilities, Cusco and the Ayarmaca chiefdom would eventually make an exchange of women: Mama Chiquia, daughter of Tocay Capac, was given to Titu Cusi Huallpa, while the ñusta Curi Ocllo, daughter of Inca Roca,
1430-619: A son with a concubine whom he named Viccho Tupac, after an ayllu with the same name. During this period of time there were no incidents with the Ayarmacas thanks to his marriage with Mama Chiquia, who ended up becoming the Coya , and whom with he had his sons Paucar Ayllu and Pahuac Huallpa Mayta, the latter became his successor despite being the youngest between both. This disgusted the Huallacan chiefdom, who wanted Marcayuto -the son of Yahuar Huaca with
1540-403: A tea or sucked with a pinch of wood ash . Medicinally, coca has been used to relieve stomach complaints, including hunger. Whether or not coca ameliorates the symptoms of altitude related illness remains uncertain. The psychoactive drug , cocaine is just one of the alkaloid substances found in coca plants. One variant grown for its cocaine content is Erythroxylum coca . Other variants of
1650-502: A true picture of the barbarous treatment which they, as well as the neighbouring Indian tribes, experienced at the hands of the Spaniards. Treated infinitely worse than slaves, they were torn from their homes and families to be driven like cattle either to the Coca plantations and Gold washings in the Yungas , or hot unhealthy valleys to the east of the high Andes (where they rapidly fell victims to
1760-471: A year, until Chimor Orma, wife of Tocay Capac and daughter of the chief of Anta , became fond of him and decided to escape together with her relatives. Thus, one day when he went out to play with other children, he met the group at an agreed place and they hurriedly left the city. When the Ayarmacas were alerted, they pursued them until to the Huaypo Lake, around 31 km. from the city of Cusco, where after
1870-399: Is based on the seasons and key agricultural events. It gives the foundation of the existence of the Aymara and their responsibility to the natural environment. The Aymara concept of time comes from the cycle of natural events such as the seasons, historical events such as the arrival of the Spaniards and mythological concepts such as the time of the sun. When there is a major shift in these, it
1980-456: Is because the Aymara tradition may see the passage of time as a continuum rather than in terms of prehistory and history. The Aymara may have been settlers from elsewhere rather than the builders of the ancient city. Pedro Cieza de León (1518-1554), the Spanish chronicler of Peru, wrote that the Aymara people he met did not know who had built the ancient city. When Inca migrants first arrived at
2090-499: Is buildings designed in a " Neo-Andean " style which has appeared in El Alto . Both Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia took up the style of wearing bowler hats in the 1920s. According to legend, a shipment of bowler hats was sent from Europe to Bolivia via Peru for use by Europeans working on railroad construction. They were given to the indigenous people if they were too small for
2200-719: Is spoken by 1.6% of the population. The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala . It is an ancient design associated with the Inca. It is an ethnic symbol for the Aymara and has been adopted as a symbol of indigenous rights. It consists of seven colors patched together in diagonal stripes. The different colours represent geographical regions. The meaning of colours have been adapted to represent different areas of indigenous culture: red (planet earth); orange (society); yellow (strength and morality); green (economy and ecology); blue (supernatural life); and, violet (self-determination). The native language of
2310-429: Is the place in which Víctor Jara lived during his childhood. 33°42′41″S 70°51′17″W / 33.71139°S 70.85472°W / -33.71139; -70.85472 This Santiago Metropolitan Region location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Aymara ethnic group The Aymara or Aimara ( Aymara : aymara listen ), people are an indigenous people in
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#17332019376172420-606: Is transformation ( kuti ). The deities are regarded in a hierarchical system. Kingdom of Cusco The Kingdom of Cusco (sometimes spelled Cuzco and in Quechua Qosqo or Qusqu ), also called the Cusco confederation , was a small kingdom based in the Andean city of Cusco that began as a small city-state founded by the Incas around the start of 13th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow into
2530-509: The Cunti people, to the southwest; but he died due to disease before his departure. Many chiefdoms allied with Cusco once the news spread of his victory in suppressing the rebellion, so he celebrated great feasts for his people. He married Mama Tancaray, daughter of the chief of the Collagua people, and his panaca was called Usca Mayta . He also had many children, the eldest, named Cunti Mayta,
2640-591: The Alcahuisa people prepared to revolt with the help of the cullumchima ayllu after many years of an allegedly fake allegiance. The pretext for the conflict was an incident between a man and a woman of opposing sides over a well , where Mayta Capac broke the leg of the Alcahuisa sinchi's son. In retaliation, the Inticancha was attacked during the night, but he was able to fight back and kill two men, injuring many more. Once
2750-629: The Andes and Altiplano regions of South America . Approximately 2.3 million Aymara live in northwest Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , and Peru . The ancestors of the Aymara lived in the region for many centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca Empire in the late 15th or early 16th century, and later of the Spanish in the 16th century. With the Spanish American wars of independence (1810–1825),
2860-495: The Apurimac River . What little remained of his family was grouped under the name of Aucaylli panaca , since many of the ex-Sapa Inca's sons were also killed in the attack. Without a clear candidate for the succession of the government, the rest of the Panakas met to decide what to do, some proposed to set aside the position of the Sapa Inca and let prominent members of the state take over the government, while others argued that without
2970-516: The Ayarmaca ayllus, Tampucunca and Quilliscachis , which caused conflicts inside the macro-ethnic group. He married Mama Cahua, princess of the Uma ayllu, (for political reasons) and so his family was grouped within the Auyni panaca . A young Mayta Capac ( c. 1290 – c. 1320 ) was put in charge after his father died of old age. It was necessary for the maskaypacha to be kept inside
3080-469: The Ayarmaca nation, for which the Huallacan people invited the boy with the excuse of visiting his mother's land and recognizing him as the future heir. At the town of Micaocancha, they left him alone because they had to "farm their fields" and deliberately let him be kidnapped by the Ayarmacas in an ambush, who then took him to the town of Amaru. Here, Tocay Capac ordered his men to kill him, but according to
3190-526: The Canchis chiefdom after meeting little resistance. Meanwhile, their Canas neighbours were peacefully annexed, for which he ordered the construction of a temple dedicated to the god Viracocha and arranged for them to provide the Incas with supplies in the town of Ayaviri . The curaca of the Collas learned of the Incas' secret alliance and decided to confront his Lupaca counterpart before their allies arrived,
3300-493: The Chanka warriors a greater threat than that of its southern neighbors, for which reason they sought an alliance with Capac Yupanqui by sending him the princess Curi Hilpay to marry, from this union he had a son called Quispe Yupanqui. Cusi Chimbo was another wife of his, sister of the first Coya before Curi Hilpay , called Mama Chimbo, she is described as "Cruel and with bad behavior, friend of banquets and drunkenness." Whether it
3410-464: The Chullo , a knitted wool cap with ear flaps and ties; a woven carrying cloth Aguayo carried across the shoulders; a poncho; and a full circle skirt gathered and decorated in horizontal layers (corte). Development of the Aymara textile industry has led to expositions of luxury alpaca wool garments, silks, lace and delicately embroidered blouses. Another innovation drawing on the Aymara colorful aesthetic
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3520-553: The Collao region, were growing stronger. But since neither side wanted an all-out conflict due to their shared fear of each other, they sought an alliance with the Incas instead. Viracocha assured both of his support, but secretly promised his help to Curi, curaca of the Lupacas, who had previously defeated the Canas chiefdom and taken their lands. On his way south, Viracocha successfully conquered
3630-422: The Huallacan ethnic group, called Mama Micay, whom he loved very much and with whom he had his son Titu Cusi Huallpa . Mama Micay turned out to be the former fiancée of Tocay Capac, leader of the Ayarmaca chiefdom, who upon hearing the news declared war on the Huallacan ayllus. After some years of conflict, both parties agreed to peace on the condition that the young Titu Cusi Huallpa had to be handed over to
3740-439: The Inca Empire (1438–1533). The government in Cusco was not much different than most chiefdoms in the region. It is likely that the title held by each ruler was that of a kuraka or sinchi , until the reign of Inca Roca , who introduced the term Sapa Inca , or Inca for short. The latter would be used to describe the ethnic group as a whole in the future, but it also meant "monarch" or "emperor". Kurakas were simply
3850-463: The Inticancha along with others, but they were all killed at the entrance of the temple. The rebels could have sacked the city, but stopped due to a thunderstorm that fell unexpectedly, believing it a providential omen and probably fearing retaliation from the Cusco army, they all returned to their lands. The regicide of Yahuar Huaca resulted in chaos in Cusco, which allowed the Chankas to reclaim
3960-496: The Inticancha with a new palace he built in the Hanan half of the city, where the twelve-angled stone was put, thus giving rise to the tradition that each Sapa Inca had to build his official residence instead of occupying the same one as his predecessor (i.e., the temple of the sun). He improved Cusco by building canals for the Saphy and Tullumayo rivers to run through the heart of
4070-649: The Isla del Sol (Sun Island), a rocky island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca, for ritual worship of the Sun God. Charles Stanish writes, Throughout their short reigns, Inca emperors were obligated to make a long pilgrimage to the Island of the Sun and the Island of the Moon to the ruined but ritually powerful city of Tiwanaku, sought to have some of their sons and daughters conceived and born in
4180-504: The Isthmus of Panama into the Pacific Ocean . Twenty-nine years later, on 16 November 1532, explorer and conquistador , Francisco Pizarro (1478 - 1541 CE), travelled south from La Isla Gorgona lured by stories of silver, gold and precious gems. On reaching Cajamarca , a town about 2000 km north of Cusco, Pizarro met and captured Atahualpa . Atahualpa, known for his tyrannical rule,
4290-783: The Sahuaseras were expelled to the south. Something similar happened to the three remaining groups: the Poques were expelled to the east, towards the Paucartambo River; the Lares were expelled to the northwest, to the valley that currently bears their name; while the Antasayas were expelled to the outskirts of Cusco during the government of Lloque Yupanqui (under the name of the Quisco ayllu, patronymic of their then chief). The recently founded city of Cusco
4400-510: The Tarapacá province of Peru. It resulted in Aymara people being politically separated between the three nations. The border between Peru and Bolivia transects Lake Titicaca. Chile denied Bolivia of its only seaport at Arica . The Aymara people left living in Chile, once again had most aspects of their lives torn asunder. In this case, it was Chilean military clergy who began the " chilenization" of
4510-453: The "windows" called Maras t'uqu . After staying there for many years, the group divided into two: the first were called Tampus , who would leave from another window called Sut'i t'uqu and eventually populate Ollantaytambo ; and the second, who came out of the last window called Qhapaq t'uqu , which was the group under command of Manco Capac , consisting of 10 ayllus . Despite their nomadic character, on their journey they always stopped for
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4620-634: The Altiplano in 1548. He gives the ruler, Viracocha Inca ( c. 1410 – 1438 CE) as the first to expand Inca territory south from the Kingdom of Cusco but that he was unsuccessful in securing the area. Again, de León records Viracocha's successor, Pachacuti ( c. 1418 – 1471 CE) as the leader who succeeded in bringing the area under Inca control, effected by his son, Yupanqui ( c. 1471 – 1493 CE). This chronology has been used widely by historians and archeologists in this field following
4730-523: The Altiplano, the Titicaca basin, and the ancient city of Tiwanaku to the south of Lake Titicaca, also encountered the Inca civilisation prior to the rise of the Inca Empire . One of the Inca origin stories tells of Manco Capac and Mama Occlo being brought up from the waters of Lake Titicaca by the Sun God to create an Inca dynasty. The rulers of the Kingdom of Cusco were obligated to travel regularly to
4840-571: The Aymara people is called Aymara . It is spoken from the north of Lake Titicaca to the south of Lake Poopó . Aymara is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It is spoken by 1.6% of the Peruvian population. Aymara has no distant language relative but there are some nearby similar languages. Quechua has some overlap with Aymara brought by contact. There are two closely related languages called Jaqaru and Kawki. A small isolated group of about 1000 people speak these languages in and around
4950-529: The Aymara people is uncertain. Various hypotheses have been voiced. Archeological data of the Titicaca basin in the Altiplano (high plain) comes from the site of the ancient city of Tiwanaku . A radiocarbon dating study suggests the ancient city was founded in about 110 CE. Origin legends of the Aymara people in terms of time frame seem inconsistent to archeologists. Archeologist Carlos Mamani Condori suggests this
5060-541: The Aymara people's spiritual life, for example, rituals or seasons of the year, with the liturgy and the liturgical calendar. On the other hand, such efforts were shunned by those who saw the Aymara spiritual life as one of idolatry and objected to the use of alcohol or coca in rituals. In the Spanish colonial era, the region of Aymara and Quechuan habitation was divided into eleven provinces. They were Canchi, Caranga, Chocarca, Colla, Collagua, Collahuaya, Omasuyo, Lupaca, Quillaca, Urbina, and Picasa. Insurrection in
5170-457: The Aymara. The emphasis of this program was indoctrination of the ideology of Chilean nationalism . The total number of Aymara people is quoted at 1,847,000. Approximately 30% live in Peru and approximately 60% in Bolivia. The rest are divided between Chile (6%) and Argentina (0.2%). Most self-identify as Christian. Aymara language is a third official language in Peru after Spanish and Quechua. It
5280-570: The Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia and Peru. After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), Chile annexed territory with the Aymara population. The name of the Aymara people stems from the word Ayma-ra-mi meaning "a place with many communally owned farms". The word "Aymara" also refers to a group of language dialects of which the origin, spread and time-frame are debated. The early history of
5390-550: The Inca. Moreover, groups of Aymara were removed from their village to work in other parts of the Empire, the number of Aymara living in Cusco itself was limited and colonists from elsewhere in the Empire were settled in the region. Christopher Colombus (1451 - 1506 CE) set sail from Castile , Spain, in August 1492 CE to find a western sea passage to the spice rich East Indies . In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475 - 1519 CE) crossed
5500-443: The Inca. The outcome was harsh retribution in the form of executions or exile. In addition to this direct punishment, the Aymara were increasingly subjugated by the building of civil, military, agricultural and religious infrastructure through their lands, removal of their sons to Cusco for education, taxation in the form of relinquishing sacred objects to the Inca. The Aymara were also required to give labour and military service to
5610-469: The Lupaqa and Colla. Their loyalty remained to their village and their local chiefs. Unlike the many groups of indigenous peoples who lost every vestige of their civilization under Inca rule, the Aymara civilisation survived, at least partially. The Aymara insurrections were violent but also organised and persistent (one of twelve years duration). In the end, though, the Aymara were unsuccessful in throwing off
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#17332019376175720-659: The Spanish in his book, A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indians . On 20 November 1542, in response to criticism, King Charles I of Spain issued the New Laws ( Ordenanzas de Barcelona or Leyes Nuevas ). Indigenous people could no longer be slaves. They could not be sent to the mines without cause. Clergy and Civil servants had to give up their encomiendas to the crown . New grants could not be given and importantly, an encomienda could not be an inheritable property. Among
5830-423: The administrative capital of the viceroyalty. He was tasked with creating a successful system of governance throughout the viceroyalty. To this end, Toledo created provinces and aligned the population with them into new, concentrated settlements called " reductions " ( reducciones de indios ). This involved forced resettlement which caused disruption to aspects of life of the indigenous people such as importance of
5940-457: The ambush, and so Yahuar Huaca ordered the razing of the town of Paulo, capital of the Huallacan people, banishing some and massacring many others. After this tragic incident, the Sapa Inca prepared his army for an expedition towards the Collasuyo , for which most of his confederate chiefdoms and ayllus lent themselves, attracted by the promise of making the war with "blood and fire", his project
6050-421: The approximate five hundred encomiendas in the viceroyalty of Peru, there were cases of corruption and circumvention of the new laws. There were skirmishes between Royalist soldiers and groups of encomenderos, culminating in the death of many encomenderos in an insurrection led by Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548. The new laws started to stream line the encomienda system but Aymara numbers continued to fall. Furthermore,
6160-402: The battle began, both sides hurled stones at each other across the river using slings, accompanied by loud shouts as in most conflicts, and continued for two days straight. Then one night, Viracocha ordered a stone to be heated over a fire, wrapped in a certain mixture or piece of cloth and put into a sling with golden threads. Viracocha launched the fiery projectile with such force that it set
6270-482: The city until both merge on the Huatanay , the valley's main river, using stone slabs that are still present today. He also mandated for the young members of the nobility to be instructed in the use of weapons and quipus , and according to Garcilaso , he was the one that founded the first Yachaywasi . Inca Roca ended up marrying Cusi Chimbo as well, but the chosen Coya was ultimately the daughter of Sumaq Inca, head of
6380-493: The coca plant contain less potent or non-toxic alkaloids and give only a mild stimulant effect. See Evangelisation Aymara religion is a syncretic system of faith, bringing indigenous spirituality and Catholicism into close proximity. The syncretism is evident in the liturgy of the Aymara lands. Christian feast days which coincide temporally with Aymara spiritual events have associated, or even combined, meaning and ritual. Aymara indigenous spirituality ( pachakuti )
6490-510: The construction of terraces and the importation of enormous quantities of soil to improve the fertility of the valley, as well as a war clash against the large Ayarmaca chiefdom. His descendants and family members were grouped within the Raura panaca . His successor, Lloque Yupanqui ( c. 1260 – c. 1290 ), continued the war against the Ayarmaca chiefdom, taking advantage of
6600-507: The construction of new homes, increasing the number of chacras , enlarging the molle and quinual groves, and the manufacturing of textiles , necessary products that he needed to compensate the services of his warriors and servants, in which he took great care so that the costumes of the nobility had tocapus . During this time, the Lupaca chiefdom and the Colla Kingdom , fierce rivals in
6710-439: The construction workers. Plants available to the traditional Aymara for through subsistence agriculture or trade were wild tomato ( Solanum huaylasense ); lucuma ( Pouteria lucuma ), a sweet fruit; a small orange fruit of the nightshade family which grows within a green calyx; qamasa and quinoa (Amaranthaceae ) of the amaranth family for their seeds and leaves; purple corn (of the flint maize family); maca ( Lepidium meyenii )
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#17332019376176820-423: The crown upon his head, performing additional sacrifices in the temple and staging grand celebrations throughout Cusco. Much to the disappointment of the population and the nobility, his short reign was the most disastrous in the history of Cusco. He spent the majority of his time with alcohol in recreational establishments throughout Cusco. He wasn't ashamed to display his genitals or toss urine-filled cups, and he
6930-543: The day. It provides food security in time of famine. However, it is not of high nutritional value. It is used in a variety of dishes. One traditional dish, common in La Paz , is Chairo. It is a type of stew made with Chuño, meat, carrots, onions and corn. The Aymara word for tree is khoka from which the word coca is derived. Aymara people have had, throughout their history, traditional, recreational, ritual and medicinal uses for coca. The whole leaves can be chewed, brewed as
7040-578: The event in his childhood. At the beginning of his reign, he had to put down another attempted rebellion by the sinchis of the Muyna and Pinagua chiefdoms with the help of Vicaquirao, which earned him the title of Apukispay as his brother's "right arm", the constant rebellions that occurred were likely due to the lack of soldiers in the conquered territories, so after discussing the matter both agreed on leaving garrisons on each annexed land. After this, he conquered around 10 neighbouring ayllus from Cusco and had
7150-403: The event. When Viracocha returned to Cusco, he expressed his desire to retire to his palace in Calca and designate Inca Urco as his successor, who was formally titled " Inca raptin " in his absence. The maskaypacha was transported from Calca to the Inticancha , where the chosen heir began a period of fasting, rituals, and preparations for several days. On the appointed day, he emerged with
7260-404: The extended family clan ( allyu ), authority of the clan and regional chiefs ( curacas ), land ownership, farming, language, rituals and sacred life (for example, sacred places known as huacas ). Toledo was also asked to consider the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest. Toledo concluded that the conquistadors were no more legitimate in their rule than the Inca. However, the viceroyalty of Peru
7370-404: The fifteen victims. These were Enrique Astudillo Álvarez, Omar Astudillo Rojas, Ramón Astudillo Rojas, Miguel Ángel Brant Bustamante, Nelson Hernández Flores, Carlos Hernández Flores, José Herrera Villegas, Iván Ordóñez Lama, Sergio Maureira Lillo, Sergio Maureira Muñoz, José Maureira Muñoz, Segundo Maureira Muñoz and Rodolfo Maureira Muñoz. In January 1980, the lime kilns were dynamited. Lonquén
7480-440: The government made by Inca Roca with the support of the Hanan Cusco dynasty. Inca Roca ( c. 1350 – c. 1380 ) was the first ruler who used the term "Inka" to refer to himself, which meant monarch or emperor, but as is known, it is also used to refer to the ethnic group, and during the empire, to the royalty and some members of the nobility . Before this, it was most likely that Cusco's rulers simply had
7590-443: The heads of an ayllu , a group of families with the same common ancestor or place of origin ( Paqarina ), that could differ significantly in size and territory. Meanwhile, the term capac , which meant "powerful", "rich" or "mighty", could be used as in capac kuraka ("powerful lord"), a title held by those in charge of some of the larger chiefdoms in the Andes. Similarly, there was also the title of hatun kuraka ("great lord") with
7700-421: The history of this era is more complex then the romantic version involving Amaru with intricate and various associations between ethnic groups. The War of the Pacific (1 March 1879 - 20 October 1883) or the nitrate war, was a conflict between Chile and an alliance of Bolivia and Peru. It was precipitated by a northward incursion by Chile to control sources of guano in the Litoral province of Bolivia and
7810-430: The indigenous labour force was redistributed causing forced and permanent displacement to cities, factories or mines. By example, in 1573, the indigenous population of labourers at the Potosí silver mines was 11,000. By 1673, the same population numbered 1,600. In 1569, Francisco de Toledo (1515 - 1582 CE) was appointed fifth viceroy of Peru by Philip II of Spain . Toledo served in this role until 1581. He made Lima
7920-406: The indigenous people in return for military protection and religious instruction. They were a sign of an elite status in society. Indigenous males between the ages of 18 and 50 were taxed in money and labour. Tax was collected by the village chiefs. One sixth of taxable males were already assigned to encomenderos who collected the taxes. Twenty percent of the monies went to the crown. In practice,
8030-540: The lake area (and) offered precious objects to the cold waters. In 1438, Aymara warriors were, be it as mercenaries, volunteers or conscripts, present in the army of the Inca ruler, Pachacuti in the defense of Cusco during the Chanka–Inca War . The date of Inca conquest of the Altiplano is uncertain beyond that, it began later than 1438 CE and was well completed by 1500 CE. The often quoted Spanish conquistador and chronicler, Pedro Cieza de León travelled through
8140-458: The latter being the grandson of Capac Yupanqui . The people of Caytomarca also revolted against Viracocha by mistreating one of his messengers and telling him that the Sapa Inca was crazy if he thought they would submit to his power since they didn't fear him, so they fortified themselves on the eastern bank of the Urubamba River to await the Inca forces that moved quickly from Calca . When
8250-414: The legend, when the boy cried, blood began to come out of his eyes. Moved by the sight, the chieftain spared his life and sent him to graze herds, from where he was transferred for safety to the capital of the Ayarmaca state, Aguayrocancha . Meanwhile, Inca Roca didn't dare to attack and rescue his son for fear that he would be killed in retaliation, the boy would remain within the Ayarmaca chiefdom for
8360-467: The most part, dialects of Aymaran or Quechuan . Some efforts were made to provide simple lexicons for religious teaching. However, this was difficult because the Aymara language had no orthography and Aymara phonetics did not compare well with those of the Spanish language . Ludovico Bertonio (1552 - 1625 CE) was an Italian Jesuit missionary who, in 1603 CE, wrote about the Aymara language. On one hand, some clergy tried to adapt notable aspects of
8470-436: The occasion and tried to gain independence, failing right after the first combat, where the first one died and the second one fled, never to be seen again. After these events, Inca Roca led an expedition through Quiquijana and conquered the town of Caytomarca, which he would eventually lose due to leaving no garrison behind. He also conquered the people of Pumatambo , to the southwest, where he travelled and visited for
8580-415: The offer by sending pieces of gold and silver. Later, he went to conquer the chiefdom of Masca , and the western ayllus of Anta and Cuyo . In the latter, he asked for bird cages as tribute. These were used in rites before going out on military campaigns. The Ayarmaca chiefdom, already recovered from the conflicts provoked by Lloque Yupanqui and having heard the news of the conquests of Cusco, saw in
8690-508: The opportunity offered by the death of their leader, Tocay Capac, in combat. This heavily diminished the Ayarmacas' capability to pose a threat to the Incas for a long time, which allowed him to conquer the territory of the Maras people. Lloque Yupanqui was an astute man, who knew how to maintain good relations with Cusco's neighbour chiefdoms and ayllus in order to secure his territory and avoid unnecessary conflict. He even managed to befriend some of
8800-459: The presence of many nearby ethnic groups: Huallas , Saños, Antasayas , Lares, Poques , Sahuaseras , and the already mentioned Alcahuisas . Faced with the imminence of a conflict, Manco Capac sought an alliance between opposing chiefdoms. He noticed the sinchi of the Saños , called Sitichuaman . Both examined the situation and decided on the marriage between Sinchi Roca and Mama Coca, daughter of
8910-612: The project of his uncle by invading the Cunti peoples, which he defeated in just two battles, killing more than 6000 men. Due to his victory, the Quechua chiefdom ( not to be confused with Quechua people ) sent him an embassy with many gifts as a symbol of their alliance. They asked for his protection against the expanding Chanka peoples who threatened them with invasion in Andahuaylas . Because Yupanqui considered them "great warriors", he accepted
9020-457: The rebellion had started, the Incas had two consecutive victories, which prompted a truce that was quickly broken by the rebels. However, during the third battle, the Alcahuisa sinchi was captured and eventually imprisoned for life, while the lands owned by his people were split between the people of Cusco. Satisfied with the victory and having achieved the consolidation of his power around Cusco, Mayta Capac prepared his army for an expedition towards
9130-459: The region occurred in an intermittent, semi-organised manner from as early as 1629 CE through to the Peruvian war of Independence (1809 - 1826 CE) when Spanish colonial rule ended. A larger and more persistent insurrection occurred between 1779 and 1781 CE. The Inca descendant, Túpac Amaru , is described as its grand leader. However, historians Julian Steward in 1946 and Steve Stern in 1987 warn that
9240-481: The resources, wealth and infrastructure of the Inca and native labour. He benefited from the lack of cohesion between the Altiplano ethnic groups. He had unstoppable soldiers and weapons. In 1542, Spain created the Viceroyalty of Peru . In the new viceroyalty, explorers, conquistadors, governors and generals were given encomiendas . These grants from Spain gave the encomenderos the right to demand taxes and labour from
9350-488: The responsibilities of the encomiendas were applied partially or not at all, while the taxes were. In 1870, David Forbes (1828 - 1876), Mineralogist and voyager, wrote to the Ethnological Society of London , of his observations in Bolivia and Peru, Whatever may have been the condition of the Aymaras under the Incas, it became infinitely worse after the Spanish conquest; it is all but impossible to convey in words
9460-533: The resulting battle in Paucarcolla ended with the curaca Curi emerging victorious. Viracocha quickly headed to the scene after receiving news of the outcome. The meeting between the two rulers took place in Chucuito , where they swore eternal peace by sharing a kero of chicha as a symbol of their friendship. The kero was transported to a temple by priests in the middle of dances and music being performed to commemorate
9570-522: The same implication, which was still in use during the Inca Empire to refer to the heads of larger provinces, as was the case with the Huancas who got divided into three. Sinchi was the Andean equivalent of a warlord and military commander. This position was elected by the most prominent members of an ayllu or chiefdom, and had the primary role to defend it in the event of an attack or invade other lands. It
9680-476: The seminal work of John Howland Rowe . However, more recent historians warn that the chronology of the spread of the Inca empire from Cusco, south to the Altiplano, may be more complex. For example, the names of Incan leaders are variable and may have been used across generations; there were revolts amongst the elite of the Inca Kingdom of Cusco itself; and the history given by the Inca to the Spanish chroniclers
9790-654: The sinchi. Both groups began to operate in agreement afterwards. Given the situation, the Huallas went to war with their sinchi Apu Cagua in command. However, they suffered a crushing defeat due to the outstanding participation of Mama Huaco at the lead of the Inca forces. Many were impaled by her order. Defeated, they fled the area towards the modern-day Sacred Valley of the Incas . The common danger also strongly united Alcahuisas and Sahuaseras , who put up strong resistance, but were ultimately defeated anyway. The Alcachuisa chief, Copalimayta , preferred exile to domination, while
9900-458: The temple of the sun and for his uncle to replace him in power for some years, which may have been the reason behind his name " Where is the powerful one? ". Another possibility is that Mayta was a Puquina term, the meaning of which has been lost. The fourth of his brothers, it is said that in his first years of life, still only a child, he possessed the strength of an adolescent, great physical resistance, courage and bravery. During his reign,
10010-499: The threat by permanently appointing the Willaq Umu himself, still choosing individuals from the Hurin dynasty but ensuring their loyalty beforehand. According to Guaman Poma , he also wanted to "burn all the idols and huacas ", but Mama Runtu prevented this by telling him that he would die if he broke the laws of his ancestors. Once the order was restored, his government was focused on
10120-507: The title of sinchis or curacas , like almost every chiefdom at the time. Due to the political turmoil in the capital, several ayllus rebelled against the new government, among them the Mascas whose chief, Cusi Huaman, was a sympathizer of the Hurin dynasty; the uprising had no effect and after a bloody battle he was jailed in Cusco. The sinchis of the Muyna and Pinagua peoples, Muyna Pongo and Huaman Tupac respectively, took advantage of
10230-417: The traces of the uprising in order to preserve the continuity of power and avoid setting the example for future generations. Once chosen, Hatun Tupac took the name of Viracocha Inca ( c. 1400 – c. 1438 ), supposedly after a dream he had where the god Viracocha appeared, and likely also to strengthen his legitimacy. His coronation was attended by curacas of all the annexed lands, as
10340-421: The traditional lands of the Aymara people, some Aymara people and other ethnic groups were living side by side in the village of Acamaca. Acamaca, located to the north of Lake Titicaca, would grow to be the site of the later Kingdom of Cusco , the capital of the Inca Empire and the current day city of Cusco . The Inca arrived not as an army but as migrants searching for agricultural land. The Aymara people of
10450-571: The usual rites, apart from whom he had other wives, among them the fierce Mama Huaco. The Incas captured the Huanacauri , which was under control of the Alcahuisa people, and did the same to the Matagua , where it was celebrated the warachikuy of Sinchi Roca , declaring him an adult. Finally, they planned to capture the Huatanay river, which constitutes the main river of the entire valley of Cusco , and had
10560-653: The village of Tupe , in Yauyos Province , in the remote highlands southwest of Lima . Other related languages are presumable extinct. Aymara people spin alpaca and llama wool and then colour it with vegetable and mineral dyes . Urine may be used as a mordant (colour fixative). Wools and cotton are woven on a horizontal peg loom by both men and women. There is no broad loom weaving and so, traditional garments such as carrying cloths and ponchos are made by joining two pieces. The colours are vibrant. Patterns are striped or geometrical. Traditional clothing items include
10670-400: The way back to Andahuaylas . Many years later, he rearmed his army and led another expedition that headed northeast to the Paucartambo River, conquering the surrounding towns but not passing through the " ceja de selva " ( highland jungle ), these were the first coca chacras that the Incas had. One of the first things that Inca Roca did during his government was to replace his home at
10780-545: Was also known for vomiting in the middle of the streets. Unconcerned with the feelings of his wife, the Coya, he spent his days with whichever women he desired, whether they were from low social status, young yanaconas , or even mamaconas .To the wives of the noblemen he found attractive he would say "My children, how are they?" implying that he had been with them and her children were not from her husbands. At no time did he try to build his own home, or build structures of any kind, he
10890-582: Was based on agriculture. In the earthquake of 1971, the damage forced many people to leave. On 15 October 1973, 15 men were arrested in the community of Isla de Maipo . Their remains were found on 30 November 1978 in abandoned lime kilns in Lonquén. February 19, 2010, the Health Science Center of the University of Texas Laboratory delivered the results of their four-year analysis, identifying thirteen of
11000-471: Was divided into four districts: Quinticancha , Chumbicancha , Sairecancha , and Yarambuycancha . When Manco Capac died, his body was mummified by his family ( Chima panaca ). Sinchi Roca ( c. 1230 – c. 1260 ) took charge of Cusco. Although his name, "generous warlord", indicates remarkable participation in the conquest of the valley, during his government he was unable to significantly expand Cusco's territory. Among his works are
11110-562: Was executed in July 1533. Pizarro reached Cusco by 1534. Some native groups saw the Spaniards as liberators and lent support to Pizarro. Pizarro also secured a lineage of Inca puppet rulers , including Manco Inca Yupanqui . Manco Inca Yupanqui, was ill treated by Pizarro's men. He escaped then returned with tens of thousands warriors, forcing Cusco into siege . After ten months, and the arrival of Spanish reinforcements, Manco Inca Yupanqui withdrew. Having secured Cusco, Pizarro continued south with
11220-456: Was given as part mythology. Furthermore, the dating of the conquest of the Incas by the finding of certain ceramics in archeological strata is, in this area, unreliable. Rather than one ethnically homogenous group, the Aymara consisted of sometimes warring clans of differing dialects, traditions and geographic distribution. Among them were the Huamallas, Hatuncollas, Chuquitos and Azángaros, and,
11330-634: Was given to Tocay Capac, with whom he increased his harem. The Sapa Inca left many offspring at the end of his long reign, which were gathered in the Vicaquirao panaca , named after another of his sons, whom he put in charge of it. His reign was one of the best in Cusco's history and served as the foundation of what would become the Inca Empire. Titu Cusi Huallpa took the name of Yahuar Huaca ( c. 1380 – c. 1400 ) "The one who cries blood" when he succeeded his father, in commemoration of
11440-420: Was interrupted by an uprising of the Cunti peoples, who were pressured by the mandatory mitas in favor of the nobility and fearing that the triumph of Cusco would increase their power. They took advantage of a party in Cusco in which Yahuar Huaca was drunk to hit him on the head, which was a signal for all the present Cuntis to rise up in arms. Realizing that it was an insurrection, he went to take refuge at
11550-405: Was jealousy or a part of Inca Roca 's conspiracy , she would end up poisoning his husband through a golden cup. This led to a political crisis in Cusco, and the ensuing chaos was taken advantage of by the Chanka , who conquered the now-isolated Quechua chiefdom. Capac Yupanqui assigned Quispe Yupanqui as his successor before dying, unfortunately, he was assassinated during the quick overthrow of
11660-431: Was legitimate on the basis of the Spanish bringing Catholic Christianity to the indigenous people. Toledo instructed the secular clergy and the leaders of the monastic orders to begin the evangelisation of the viceroyalty. This was not an easy task due to a lack of clergy, lack of experience of the monastic orders in evangelizing and the language barrier between the Spanish and the indigenous groups who spoke, for
11770-450: Was put as Willaq Umu , and he chose another named Tarco Huaman as his successor. Tarco Huaman successfully replaced his father, but got only to reign briefly before he got deposed almost immediately by his cousin, Capac Yupanqui . The latter then killed nine of his brothers and rounded up the rest to make them swear allegiance as to ensure his reign. Tarco Huaman was placed in charge of his father's panaca , and would eventually be sent as
11880-421: Was temporal, but given that periods of conflict in the Andes could last for years or even decades, the term sinchi could be seen as equivalent for the kuraka during wartime. During the exodus from Lake Titicaca , a caravan of Puquina -speaking immigrants from the crumbling Tiwanaku state stumbled upon Pacaritambo , the pacarina of the Maras people, since they originated "without parents" from one of
11990-433: Was the tradition, and also by some of the neighboring nations. The one who stood out was the lord of the Colla Kingdom , Chuchi Capac, who brought a large number of servants and litters with great wealth. The newly appointed Sapa Inca chose Mama Runtu as his wife, daughter of the chief of Anta , whom with he had his sons Cusi Yupanqui and Capac Yupanqui. The Coya had a shy personality, and so despite her position, she
12100-455: Was unable to influence his husband's government to the same degree as some of his concubines, specially Curi Chulpi, from the Sahuasera ayllu, and mother of Inca Urco, the monarch's favorite son, and Inca Socso, who was left in charge of his father's lineage: Socso panaca . Viracocha Inca invaded the valleys of Yucay and Calca , which he swiftly conquered. After this, he had to put down
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