99-523: Longacre , long acre or longacres may refer to: General [ edit ] Drovers' road#Long acre , wide grassy road verges Places [ edit ] Long Acre , a street in London, England Longacre Square , former name for Times Square and Duffy Square in Manhattan, USA Longacres, St Albans , England (site of Marconi Instruments) People with
198-421: A drove , is a route for droving livestock on foot from one place to another, such as to market or between summer and winter pasture (see transhumance ). Many drovers' roads were ancient routes of unknown age; others are known to date back to medieval or more recent times. Drovers' roads are often wider than other roads, able to accommodate large herds or flocks. Packhorse ways were quite narrow as
297-412: A fatiguing or hypnotic effect upon the driver over the course of a long journey. Composite pavements combine a Portland cement concrete sublayer with an asphalt overlay. They are usually used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than in new construction. Asphalt overlays are sometimes laid over distressed concrete to restore a smooth wearing surface. A disadvantage of this method is that movement in
396-423: A pan of tar mixed with sawdust, grit or ground shells or fitted with pads to protect their feet. The feet of turkeys could be tarred and sanded. Daniel Defoe recorded that 150,000 turkeys were driven from East Anglia to London each year, the journey taking three months to complete. There is reported to be a record of a wager in 1740 on whether geese or turkeys would travel faster – the winner being
495-512: A placename can be traced to the early 13th century, and there are records of cattle driven from Wales to London and sheep from Lincolnshire to York in the early 14th century. Drovers from Scotland were licensed in 1359 to drive stock through England. These may be simply the earliest records of a more ancient trade. There is increasing evidence for large-scale cattle-rearing in Bronze Age and Iron Age Britain. Cattle and sheep were part of
594-788: A compacted base course . Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the 20th century and are of two types: metalled (hard-surfaced) and unmetalled roads. Metalled roadways are made to sustain vehicular load and so are usually made on frequently used roads. Unmetalled roads, also known as gravel roads or dirt roads, are rough and can sustain less weight. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic . Today, permeable paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways to prevent flooding. Pavements are crucial to countries such as United States and Canada , which heavily depend on road transportation. Therefore, research projects such as Long-Term Pavement Performance have been launched to optimize
693-561: A floor beaten or rammed down, through Old French pavement . The meaning of a beaten-down floor was obsolete before the word entered English. Pavement, in the form of beaten gravel , dates back before the emergence of anatomically modern humans . Pavement laid in patterns like mosaics were commonly used by the Romans. The bearing capacity and service life of a pavement can be raised dramatically by arranging good drainage by an open ditch or covered drains to reduce moisture content in
792-516: A former horse-racing track in Washington, USA Longacres Mile Handicap , a horse race held now annually at Emerald Downs racetrack in Auburn, Washington, USA Companies [ edit ] Longacre Press , a New Zealand publisher See also [ edit ] Acre (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
891-476: A general geographic route before becoming roadways. They were a major economic activity in the 19th and early 20th century. Particularly common in the western states, such as Texas , Kansas , Louisiana . The peak period for cattle driving was between 1850s and 1910s. In this period, about 27 million cattle were moved during that time. The riders covered long distances. Both riders and stock animals were in need of rest, this resulted in formation of "cow towns" across
990-669: A given period of time. Pavement design methods are continuously evolving. Among these are the Shell Pavement design method, and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993/98 "Guide for Design of Pavement Structures". A mechanistic-empirical design guide was developed through the NCHRP process, resulting in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), which
1089-751: A gravel road or not often hinges on traffic volume. It has been found that maintenance costs for gravel roads often exceed the maintenance costs for paved or surface-treated roads when traffic volumes exceed 200 vehicles per day. Some communities are finding it makes sense to convert their low-volume paved roads to aggregate surfaces. Pavers (or paviours ), generally in the form of pre-cast concrete blocks, are often used for aesthetic purposes, or sometimes at port facilities that see long-duration pavement loading. Pavers are rarely used in areas that see high-speed vehicle traffic. Brick , cobblestone , sett , wood plank , and wood block pavements such as Nicolson pavement , were once common in urban areas throughout
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#17328522334731188-412: A heavy weight is dropped on the concrete to induce cracking, then a heavy roller is used to seat the resultant pieces into the subbase. The main difference between the two processes is the equipment used to break the concrete pavement and the size of the resulting pieces. The theory is that frequent small cracks will spread thermal stress over a wider area than infrequent large joints, reducing the stress on
1287-417: A layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two British engineers: Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam . Telford's method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from
1386-465: A manner similar to metals ), the damage done to pavement increases with the fourth power of the axle load of the vehicles traveling on it. According to the AASHO Road Test , heavily loaded trucks can do more than 10,000 times the damage done by a normal passenger car. Tax rates for trucks are higher than those for cars in most countries for this reason, though they are not levied in proportion to
1485-442: A port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of sandstone blocks bound with clay - gypsum mortar , covered by a layer of basaltic flagstones and had separate shoulders . This road could be considered superior to any Roman road . Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as
1584-484: A process called milling . This pavement is commonly referred to as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). RAP can be transported to an asphalt plant, where it will be stockpiled for use in new pavement mixes, or it may be recycled in-place using the techniques described below. Bituminous surface treatment (BST) or chipseal is used mainly on low-traffic roads, but also as a sealing coat to rejuvenate an asphalt concrete pavement. It generally consists of aggregate spread over
1683-516: A research facility near Auburn University , the NCAT Pavement Test Track , that is used to test experimental asphalt pavements for durability. In addition to repair costs, the condition of a road surface has economic effects for road users. Rolling resistance increases on rough pavement, as does wear and tear of vehicle components. It has been estimated that poor road surfaces cost the average US driver $ 324 per year in vehicle repairs, or
1782-487: A road is by the use of a portable electric fence , visible to the stock and to passing travellers as a single white tape. The use of the long acre as pasture has sometimes become formalised. For example, in parts of England, some have been registered as common land . In some cases the herbage of the drove was rented out to local farmers for grazing. The related term long paddock is occasionally encountered in Australia with
1881-462: A speed limit of 30 km/h, for the purpose of traffic calming . One popular measure is to use brick paving - the noise and vibration slows motorists down. At the same time, it is not uncommon for cycle paths alongside a road to have a smoother surface than the road itself. Although rarely constructed today, early-style macadam and tarmac pavements are sometimes found beneath modern asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete pavements, because
1980-429: A sprayed-on asphalt emulsion or cut-back asphalt cement. The aggregate is then embedded into the asphalt by rolling it, typically with a rubber-tired roller . This type of surface is described by a wide variety of regional terms including "chip seal", "tar and chip", "oil and stone", "seal coat", "sprayed seal", "surface dressing", "microsurfacing", "seal", or simply as "bitumen". BST is used on hundreds of miles of
2079-500: A traffic volume where the annual average daily traffic is 1,200 vehicles per day or less. There is some structural strength if the road surface combines a sub base and base and is topped with a double-graded seal aggregate with emulsion. Besides the 4,929 kilometres (3,063 mi) of granular pavements maintained in Saskatchewan, around 40% of New Zealand roads are unbound granular pavement structures. The decision whether to pave
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#17328522334732178-578: Is aggregate -reinforced thermoplastic which can be heat applied to the top layer of the brick-pattern surface. Other coating materials over stamped asphalt are paints and two-part epoxy coating. Roadway surfacing choices are known to affect the intensity and spectrum of sound emanating from the tire/surface interaction. Initial applications of noise studies occurred in the early 1970s. Noise phenomena are highly influenced by vehicle speed. Roadway surface types contribute differential noise effects of up to 4 dB , with chip seal type and grooved roads being
2277-628: Is a low-cost road surface using a 16–30-millimetre-thick ( 5 ⁄ 8 – 1 + 1 ⁄ 8 in) mixture of bitumen and crushed rock. Gravel is known to have been used extensively in the construction of roads by soldiers of the Roman Empire (see Roman road ) but in 1998 a limestone-surfaced road, thought to date back to the Bronze Age , was found at Yarnton in Oxfordshire, Britain. Applying gravel, or " metalling ", has had two distinct usages in road surfacing. The term road metal refers to
2376-847: Is applied at temperatures over 150 °C (300 °F) with a free floating screed . Warm mix asphalt is applied at temperatures of 95–120 °C (200–250 °F), resulting in reduced energy usage and emissions of volatile organic compounds . Cold mix asphalt is often used on lower-volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too much on the long trip from the asphalt plant to the construction site. An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1,200 vehicles per day. Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete,
2475-440: Is done quickly on the wearing course, potholes will form. The freeze-thaw cycle in cold climates will dramatically accelerate pavement deterioration, once water can penetrate the surface. Clay and fumed silica nanoparticles may potentially be used as efficient UV-anti aging coatings in asphalt pavements. If the road is still structurally sound, a bituminous surface treatment, such as a chipseal or surface dressing can prolong
2574-402: Is needed (otherwise more pumps would be needed in the water distribution system) and rainwater is not polluted because it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the earth. A previous disadvantage was that they had a higher initial cost and could be more time-consuming to construct. This cost can typically be offset through the long life cycle of the pavement and
2673-435: Is to use rubber imprinting tools to press over a thin layer of cement to create decorative concrete . Another method is to use a brick pattern stencil and apply a surfacing material over the stencil. Materials that can be applied to give the color of the brick and skid resistance can be in many forms. An example is to use colored polymer-modified concrete slurry which can be applied by screeding or spraying. Another material
2772-428: Is used for those engaged in long distance trade – distances which could cover much of the length of Britain or other world regions where droving was used – while "cattle driver" was used for those taking cattle to local markets. Drovers used dogs to help control the stock, and these would sometimes be sent home alone after a drove, retracing their outward route and being fed at inns or farms
2871-548: Is used on secondary highways with low traffic volume and minimal weight loading. Construction involves minimal subgrade preparation, following by covering with a 50-to-100-millimetre (2–4 in) cold mix asphalt aggregate. The Operation Division of the Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure in Saskatchewan has the responsibility of maintaining 6,102 kilometres (3,792 mi) of thin membrane surface (TMS) highways. Otta seal
2970-662: The Alaska Highway and other similar roadways in Alaska , the Yukon Territory , and northern British Columbia . The ease of application of BST is one reason for its popularity, but another is its flexibility, which is important when roadways are laid down over unstable terrain that thaws and softens in the spring. Other types of BSTs include micropaving, slurry seals and Novachip. These are laid down using specialized and proprietary equipment. They are most often used in urban areas where
3069-705: The American Midwest , starting in 1914 west of Malta, Illinois , while using concrete with the specified concrete "ideal section" for the Lincoln Highway in Lake County, Indiana , during 1922 and 1923. Concrete roadways may produce more noise than asphalt from tire noise on cracks and expansion joints. A concrete pavement composed of multiple slabs of uniform size will produce a periodic sound and vibration in each vehicle as its tires pass over each expansion joint. These monotonous repeated sounds and vibrations can cause
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3168-711: The Early Middle Ages . For example, the old east-west drovers' road connecting the Dorset / Exeter region with London and thence Suffolk is along a similar alignment to the Roman road of the same route. Many lengths of the Welsh Road through the English Midlands coincide with manorial or parish boundaries, suggesting that it predates them and probably had pre-Roman origins as an ancient trackway . In Great Britain, Drove as
3267-624: The Indus Valley Civilisation on the Indian subcontinent from around the same time. Improvements in metallurgy meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the Middle East and Greece allowing local streets to be paved. Notably, in about 2000 BC, the Minoans built a 50 km paved road from Knossos in northern Crete through the mountains to Gortyn and Lebena ,
3366-563: The Romano-British economy. By the Anglo-Saxon period there was long distance movement of cattle, including stolen stock. What is certain is that during the medieval period there was a substantial trade in cattle out of Wales into England, to which cattle from Ireland were added. These were driven across Somerset , Wiltshire and Berkshire to feed the growing population of London. The drovers made use of ancient ridgeways , including
3465-547: The 13th century and were organised in the 16th century by Statuts de la transhumance . In some areas, such as on Mont Lozère , the drailles were marked by montjoies (standing stones). In the Kingdom of Naples , patterns of transhumance established in Late Antiquity were codified by Frederick II Hohenstaufen , but the arrival of rulers of Aragon in the 15th century saw the organisation of sheepways, tratturi delle pecore on
3564-466: The 1840s, cattle disease, and more intensive use of the countryside through which the stock had passed for hundreds of years. For example, importation of cattle from Donaghadee in Ireland to Portpatrick , which would then be driven through Wigtownshire , had reached 20,000 per year in 1812, but fell to 1,080 in 1832, because they came by steamer directly to ports at Liverpool and Glasgow instead. As
3663-522: The 1920s. The viscous nature of the bitumen binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant plastic deformation , although fatigue from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism. Most asphalt surfaces are laid on a gravel base, which is generally at least as thick as the asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are laid directly on the native subgrade . In areas with very soft or expansive subgrades such as clay or peat , thick gravel bases or stabilization of
3762-518: The 25th day of January, 1866. — Welshman The regularity of the Welsh trade across Wiltshire is proved by an inscription in Welsh on an old inn (now a private house) in Stockbridge , still visible in the twentieth century: Gwair tymherus porfa flasus (worthwhile grass and a pleasant pasture) and Cwrw da cwal cysurus (good beer and a comfortable shelter). Much of the trade in cattle from Wales to London
3861-499: The Aragonese model, and pastoralists were given privileges and restrictions, collectively termed the dogana , that were reminiscent of those of the Mesta . This established drovers' roads that continued without substantial change into the age of the railway. By the 17th century Daniel Defoe described Smithfield , in London, as the greatest meat market in the world. In 1855 it was moved to
3960-555: The Barn, Stable, Granary, and other Out-houses, Yard, Garden, and several Closes of rich Grass Land thereto belonging, containing Twenty Acres (more or less), situated in Tydd St Giles , the Isle of Ely , adjoining the turnpike-road from Long Sutton to Wisbech . Droving declined during the nineteenth century, through a combination of agricultural change, the introduction of railway transport from
4059-564: The Court of Session to take such course as should be proper with respect thereto. Lord Brougham agreed with the Lord Chancellor. Lord Campbell said, the public might have passage over a road, but not the right of having their cattle fed in the course of the passage. In a case of this kind in England, if the owner of fields lying by the side of the road brought an action of trespass because the cattle ate
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4158-734: The EXCHEQUER. In reply to Mr. Mark Stewart, said that the present exemption from dog licence duty in favour shepherds' and farmers' dogs applied only to dogs exclusively employed and kept on farms. He could not extend the exemption to cattle and sheep drovers’ and cattle and sheep drovers and cattle dealers' dogs. — Londonderry Sentinel They were also exempted from the Disarming Acts of 1716 and 1748, which were passed after Jacobite risings . They were not necessarily literate but were respected as experts in their trade. Some form of drovers' roads existed in Romano-British times and certainly throughout
4257-507: The Horned Cattle. During one disease outbreak, drovers were no longer able to take their dogs into Ireland. 18. No dog accompanying a drover or of the description ordinarily used by drovers or persons in charge of cattle, sheep, or swine shall be brought into any part of Ireland by any person, if the last place on land from whence such dog shall have been brought shall be any part of Great Britain. 19. This order shall come into operation on
4356-454: The House of Lords on Thursday last. It will seen that the decision of their Lordships is contrary to that of the Court of Session. They held that right of the respondents to the drove-stances could not be sustained, and therefore the interlocutor must be remitted, and the case on the other points sent back to the Court of Session. The question before their Lordships were two in number- first, as to
4455-574: The North-East railway company, initially the drovers accompanied the stock on the goods train; later, they were required to use the passenger trains. Despite the decline in droving, the annual Drovers' Tea in Norwich in 1906 organised by the RSPCA catered for 570. Drovers and other road users could come into conflict. In 1916 a new order compelled farmers and drovers of cattle, sheep, et cetera, to carry lamps at
4554-651: The Ridgeway over the Berkshire Downs , and ridgeways still known as the Old Shaftesbury Drove and the Ox Drove leading from Shaftesbury and Blandford to Salisbury . Medieval drovers' roads were wide by medieval standards, 20 metres across, with wide grazing verges on either side, the " long acre ". In medieval Spain the existence of migratory flocks on the largest scale, which were carefully organised through
4653-576: The Statute in that Behalf made and provided: These are to give Notice, that every Person offending against the said Act of Parliament, forfeits the Sum of Five Founds for every Offence, and that if any Person shall from hence- forth presume to use or carry on the said Business of a Drover or Badger, within the said County of Durham, without a proper Licence, he will be prosecuted according to Law. Drovers' dogs were also licensed. DOG LICENCE DUTY The CHANCELLOR of
4752-702: The appeal was competent. On the chief question, he observed — It was contended, in the argument for the respondents, that the stances were indispensably necessary to the convenient travelling of the cattle; and that without them the drove roads - of which he would not give any opinion, as there was no question raised as to the right of way in the appeal - would be useless. But the stances themselves were claimed as of right. The respondents, in their pleadings, say certain places for resting and refreshing sheep and cattle on their journey are , indispensable; these, places are situated at average distances of 10 miles from each other, and are invariable and indispensable accompaniments to
4851-534: The bank issued its own bank notes. The bank survived until 1909 when it was taken over by Lloyds Bank . The long acre is a traditional term for wide grassy road verges. In some places, such as Australia, New Zealand, and parts of the British Isles, rural roads are often separated from adjoining paddocks and fields by both a hedge or fence and a wide grass verge. Rather than leaving this verge fallow, farmers often tether livestock on it to use pasture feed (in
4950-548: The broken stone or cinders used in the construction or repair of roads or railways , and is derived from the Latin metallum , which means both " mine " and " quarry ". The term originally referred to the process of creating a gravel roadway. The route of the roadway would first be dug down several feet and, depending on local conditions, French drains may or may not have been added. Next, large stones were placed and compacted, followed by successive layers of smaller stones, until
5049-461: The centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. McAdam developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam ). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support
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#17328522334735148-417: The cost of their removal at the time of renovation would not significantly benefit the durabilty and longevity of the newer surface. There are ways to create the appearance of brick pavement, without the expense of actual bricks. The first method to create brick texture is to heat an asphalt pavement and use metal wires to imprint a brick pattern using a compactor to create stamped asphalt . A similar method
5247-856: The countryside, with high earth walls or hedges . The most characteristic feature of these roads is the occasional sharp turn in the road, which provided cover for animals and men in severe rain or snow. Some drovers' roads crossed mountains. It is likely that the so-called Roman Steps in the Rhinogydd in Wales is an example of a drove road. Drovers (those droving or driving livestock) accompanied their livestock either on foot or on horseback , travelling substantial distances. Rural England, Wales and Scotland are crossed by numerous drove roads that were used for this trade, many of which are now no more than tracks, and some lost altogether. The word "drover" (porthmon in Welsh)
5346-440: The damage done. Passenger cars are considered to have little practical effect on a pavement's service life, from a materials fatigue perspective. Other failure modes include aging and surface abrasion. As years go by, the binder in a bituminous wearing course gets stiffer and less flexible. When it gets "old" enough, the surface will start losing aggregates, and macrotexture depth increases dramatically. If no maintenance action
5445-409: The depasturing of cattle upon another man's land, in respect right of passing over a road which ran through that, land. Under these circumstances, the interlocutor of the Court that the averments were relevant— in other words, that such a claim might be supported as a legal claim - appeared to his lordship to be erroneous; and he moved that that interlocutor should be discharged, and the case remitted to
5544-595: The drove had 'stanced' at; the drover would pay for their food on his next journey. A newspaper reported that the dogs mostly used in London for droving to the outlying butcheries and depots were principally collies, but in this show were a few of the old English bob-tailed animals seldom seen in London except on show, and not so often seen in the country as was the case thirty or forty years ago. Controlling herds of three or four hundred animals on narrow roads, keeping them healthy, and feeding them en route over several weeks or months required expertise and authority. There
5643-437: The drove roads And the Court in its interlocutor "finds that there are relative averments fit to be the subject of a jury trial" But the right claimed appeared to nothing less than a right to pasture the cattle certain distances in the drove-roads on other men's lands, without payment and without con sent or agreement. There was no principle which could be referred to as supporting such a right. There be no principle authorising
5742-444: The economics of concrete paving so that a well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be cheaper in initial cost and significantly cheaper over the life cycle. Another important advantage is that waterproof concrete can be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains next to the road and reduces the need for a slightly sloped driveway to drain rainwater. Avoiding rainwater discharge by using runoff also means less electricity
5841-414: The form of the grass) that would otherwise be wasted. Historically, the long acre was also grazed by herds or flocks moving from place to place, either on long journeys, or from one small local field to another. The long acre provided an important resource for such flocks and herds, perhaps forming a significant part of a small farmer's pasture. In Australia, the most common method of keeping grazing stock off
5940-431: The form, whether the appeal was competent; and, secondly as to the merits, whether the respondents, owners and drovers of cattle and sheep, had a right to stance - a place for resting and feeding their cattle on their way from the north and west Highlands to the south -on the lands of Inverouran and Inverruach, in the parish of Glenorchy, of which the appellant was the proprietor. The Chancellor, in moving judgment, held that
6039-457: The front and rear of herds or flocks, such lamps "to be visible for a reasonable distance", and swung to and fro on the approach of any vehicle to indicate the presence of an obstruction on the road. Cattle drives in North America by American cowboys and South American cattle drivers are similar in nature, although distances were often greater; like most routes they started out by following
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#17328522334736138-498: The frontier. The first of them were Abilene , Wichita and Dodge City . Metalled road A road surface ( British English ) or pavement ( North American English ) is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic , such as a road or walkway . In the past, gravel road surfaces, macadam , hoggin , cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but these have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on
6237-569: The geese which could graze as they moved, while the turkeys had to stop to be fed. Repeatedly, regulations were put in place to try to control outbreaks of cattle disease and these included the drovers' activities. Penalties of £50 or more could be imposed. From the LONDON GAZETTE, July I . Extract of an Act passed the last Session of Parliament for preventing the Spreading of the Distemper amongst
6336-411: The herbage at the sides of the road, the only defence would be that of excuse, because the drover could not prevent them, but it would be no defence that the drover had a right to allow them take it; still less that the owner of adjoining fields was to bound furnish places where the cattle might rest and feed on the way. If there was an abuse of the rights of property in refusing maintain these stances, as
6435-480: The higher cost of bitumen. Concrete pavement can be maintained over time utilizing a series of methods known as concrete pavement restoration which include diamond grinding , dowel bar retrofits , joint and crack sealing, cross-stitching, etc. Diamond grinding is also useful in reducing noise and restoring skid resistance in older concrete pavement. The first street in the United States to be paved with concrete
6534-471: The horses moved in single file, whereas drove roads were at least 40 feet (12 m) and up to 90 feet (27 m) wide. In the United Kingdom, where many original drovers' roads have been converted into single carriageway metalled roads , unusually wide verges often give an indication of the road's origin. In Wales, the start of many droveways, drovers' roads are often recognisable by being deeply set into
6633-468: The joints between the underlying concrete slabs, whether from thermal expansion and contraction, or from deflection of the concrete slabs from truck axle loads , usually causes reflective cracks in the asphalt. To decrease reflective cracking, concrete pavement is broken apart through a break and seat, crack and seat , or rubblization process. Geosynthetics can be used for reflective crack control. With break and seat and crack and seat processes,
6732-535: The last drove over the Corrieyairack Pass is believed to have taken place in 1906. Corrieyairack Pass had also been used by droves of cattle and sheep from the Isle of Skye ; the last drove from Skye to use the pass occurred "in the closing years of the 19th century". An example of regular annual sheep droving is described as taking place "a short time before the [First World] war" in England between Dorset and Hertfordshire. When cattle were moved by rail by
6831-500: The life cycle of different road surfaces. Pavement , in construction, is an outdoor floor or superficial surface covering. Paving materials include asphalt , concrete , stones such as flagstone , cobblestone , and setts , artificial stone , bricks , tiles , and sometimes wood. In landscape architecture , pavements are part of the hardscape and are used on sidewalks , road surfaces , patios , courtyards , etc. The term pavement comes from Latin pavimentum , meaning
6930-473: The life of the road at low cost. In areas with cold climate, studded tires may be allowed on passenger cars. In Sweden and Finland, studded passenger car tires account for a very large share of pavement rutting . The physical properties of a stretch of pavement can be tested using a falling weight deflectometer . Several design methods have been developed to determine the thickness and composition of road surfaces required to carry predicted traffic loads for
7029-447: The loudest, and concrete surfaces without spacers being the quietest. Asphaltic surfaces perform intermediately relative to concrete and chip seal . Rubberized asphalt has been shown to give a 3–5 dB reduction in tire-pavement noise emissions, and a marginally discernible 1–3 dB reduction in total road noise emissions when compared to conventional asphalt applications. As pavement systems primarily fail due to fatigue (in
7128-475: The major advantages of concrete pavements is they are typically stronger and more durable than asphalt roadways. The surface can be grooved to provide a durable skid-resistant surface. Concrete roads are more economical to drive in terms of fuel consumption, they reflect light better, and they last significantly longer than other paving surfaces; but they have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern paving methods and design methods have changed
7227-523: The non-homogeneous expansion and contraction with non-rubber components. The application of rubberized asphalt is more temperature-sensitive and in many locations can only be applied at certain times of the year. Study results of the long-term acoustic benefits of rubberized asphalt are inconclusive. Initial application of rubberized asphalt may provide a reduction of 3–5 decibels (dB) in tire-pavement-source noise emissions; however, this translates to only 1–3 dB in total traffic-noise reduction when combined with
7326-529: The north of England, from 1765, when Parliament passed an act authorising the creation of turnpike trusts to build toll funded roads in the Knaresborough area. Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet is widely credited with establishing the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time as Metcalf. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved
7425-515: The north, around León , Soria , Cuenca and Segovia , from the middle of April, and returning to winter pasturage in La Mancha , Extremadura , Alcántara and the lowlands of Andalusia . In Languedoc the transhumance pathways, more restricted by agriculture and orchards and less organized than those of Iberia, were the drailles that fed into the main carraïres , which led from coastal plains to summer mountain pastures. They are documented from
7524-498: The other components of traffic noise. Compared to traditional passive attenuating measures (e.g., noise walls and earth berms), rubberized asphalt provides shorter-lasting and lesser acoustic benefits at typically much greater expense. Concrete surfaces (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement, coarse aggregate , sand , and water. In virtually all modern mixes there will also be various admixtures added to increase workability, reduce
7623-828: The outskirts of the city, to a site known as the Caledonian Market on Caledonian Road , Islington , to avoid the problems of large numbers of stock being driven through the streets. Cattle were also driven to other major cities, to areas of intermediate grazing to be fattened for market, and to markets and fairs. Many of the greatest stock fairs, such as Tan Hill, Yarnbury and White Sheet in Wiltshire , were held on ancient sites to which cattle were driven for centuries, perhaps since prehistoric times. Geese , turkeys , pigs , and horses and in some cases goats were also driven to markets. Large quantities were driven to London. Cattle were shod with iron shoes; geese could be driven through
7722-430: The overlying asphalt pavement. "Rubblization" is a more complete fracturing of the old, worn-out concrete, effectively converting the old pavement into an aggregate base for a new asphalt road. The whitetopping process uses Portland cement concrete to resurface a distressed asphalt road. Distressed pavement can be reused when rehabilitating a roadway. The existing pavement is broken up and may be ground on-site through
7821-617: The pavements subbase and subgrade . Wheeled transport created the need for better roads. Generally, natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in Ur in 4000 BC. Corduroy roads were built in Glastonbury , England in 3300 BC, and brick-paved roads were built in
7920-403: The required amount of water, mitigate harmful chemical reactions, and for other beneficial purposes. In many cases there will also be Portland cement substitutes added, such as fly ash . This can reduce the cost of the concrete and improve its physical properties. The material is applied in a freshly mixed slurry and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the cement slurry to
8019-455: The respondents seemed to think the proper remedy was not by appeal to the courts of law, which could only administer existing rights, but to the Legislature, which had the authority create new rights. Inverness Courier The last recorded large-scale cattle drove across Wales was in 1870, and of sheep in 1900, although droving was briefly resumed during the rail strike of 1912. In Scotland,
8118-430: The road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear. Size of stones was central to McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (7.9 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in). Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley , who noticed that spilled tar on
8217-560: The road surface was composed of small stones compacted into a hard, durable surface. "Road metal" later became the name of stone chippings mixed with tar to form the road-surfacing material tarmac . A road of such material is called a " metalled road " in Britain, a " paved road " in Canada and the US, or a " sealed road " in parts of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. A granular surface can be used with
8316-525: The roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface. He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac. Hooley's 1901 patent for tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, and then compacting the mixture with a steamroller . The tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement , resin , and pitch . Asphalt (specifically, asphalt concrete ), sometimes called flexible pavement since its viscosity causes minute deformations as it distributes loads, has been widely used since
8415-407: The roughness and loose stone associated with chip seals is considered undesirable. A thin membrane surface (TMS) is an oil -treated aggregate which is laid down upon a gravel road bed, producing a dust-free road. A TMS road reduces mud problems and provides stone-free roads for local residents where loaded truck traffic is negligible. The TMS layer adds no significant structural strength, and so
8514-596: The same meaning, although the term also has a more specific historical meaning, relating to the cross-country droving of cattle between Queensland and New South Wales along what is now the route of the Cobb Highway . Whilst drovers often slept in the open, there were pubs that catered for the needs of drovers and their stock. One such was the Tydd Gote Inn, advertised as a Drover's House. ALL that old-accustomed and well-established DROVER'S HOUSE, called Tydd Gote Inn, with
8613-415: The subgrade with Portland cement or lime may be required. Polypropylene and polyester geosynthetics are also used for this purpose, and in some northern countries a layer of polystyrene boards are used to delay and minimize frost penetration into the subgrade. Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix, warm mix, half warm mix, or cold mix. Hot mix asphalt
8712-423: The surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine molecularly in a chemical reaction called hydration . Concrete surfaces have been classified into three common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP). The one item that distinguishes each type is the jointing system used to control crack development. One of
8811-399: The surname [ edit ] James B. Longacre (1794–1869), American engraver Robert E. Longacre (1922–2014), American linguist Edward Longacre (born 1946), American author Theatres [ edit ] Longacre Theatre , a Broadway theatre, New York, USA Queen's Theatre, Long Acre , a former London theatre, England Horse racing [ edit ] Longacres ,
8910-653: The system of the Mesta , gave rise to orderly drovers' roads, called cabañeras in Aragon , carreradas in Catalonia , azadores reales , emphasising royal patronage, in Valencia , and most famous of all, cañadas , including three major cañadas reales , in Castile. Along these grazing trackways, sheep travelled for distances of 350 to 450 miles (560 to 725 km), to the summer pasturages of
9009-465: The tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather, and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways . In the mid-1960s, rubberized asphalt was used for the first time, mixing crumb rubber from used tires with asphalt. While a potential use for tires that would otherwise fill landfills and present a fire hazard, rubberized asphalt has shown greater incidence of wear in freeze-thaw cycles in temperate zones because of
9108-568: The title Longacre . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Longacre&oldid=904890305 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Drovers%27 road#Long acre A drovers' road , drove road , droveway , or simply
9207-462: The use of driveways declined and rights of way and responsibility for maintenance were disputed, evidence of usage by drivers could be given in court, as happened in Wisbech St Mary , Isle of Ely in 1843. Drovers' rights to occupy a stance and pasture their cattle was also being challenged. DROVE STANCES. THE MARQUIS OF BREADALBANE V MACGREGOR AND OTHERS. Judgment was given on this appeal by
9306-494: The water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century. The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf , who constructed about 290 kilometres (180 mi) of turnpike road , mainly in
9405-555: The world, but fell out of fashion in most countries, due to the high cost of labor required to lay and maintain them, and are typically only kept for historical or aesthetic reasons. In some countries, however, they are still common in local streets. In the Netherlands , brick paving has made something of a comeback since the adoption of a major nationwide traffic safety program in 1997. From 1998 through 2007, more than 41,000 km of city streets were converted to local access roads with
9504-704: Was Court Avenue in Bellefontaine, Ohio in 1893. The first mile of concrete pavement in the United States was on Woodward Avenue in Detroit, Michigan in 1909. Following these pioneering uses, the Lincoln Highway Association , established in October 1913 to oversee the creation of one of the United States' earliest east-west transcontinental highways for the automobile, began to establish "seedling miles" of specifically concrete-paved roadbed in various places in
9603-478: Was adopted by AASHTO in 2008, although MEPDG implementation by state departments of transportation has been slow. Further research by University College London into pavements has led to the development of an indoor, 80-sq-metre artificial pavement at a research centre called Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory (PAMELA). It is used to simulate everyday scenarios, from different pavement users to varying pavement conditions. There also exists
9702-552: Was done on letters of credit . In 1706 the law was changed specifically to prevent drovers escaping their debts by declaring themselves bankrupt. The trade promoted the development of banking systems in both London and Wales. David Jones, a farmer's son, came into contact with the drovers whilst employed at the King's Head in Llandovery and set up his own Black Ox Bank in Llandovery in 1799;
9801-559: Was licensing under legislation introduced in 1563 intended to control " badgers " of grain and drovers of cattle, although it seems to have been less rigorously applied to drovers. Whereas several Persons have of late used and carried on the Business of a Drover of Cattle, and of a common Badge Carrier, Buyer and Seller of Com and Grain, butter and Cheese, within the County Palatine, of Durham, without, being thereunto licenced according to
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