The Lodge Bill of 1890, also referred to as the Federal Elections Bill or by critics as the Lodge Force Bill , was a proposed bill to ensure the security of elections for U.S. Representatives.
119-610: It was drafted and proposed by Representative Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts and sponsored in the Senate by George Frisbie Hoar with the endorsement of President Benjamin Harrison and all Republicans. The bill provided for the federal regulation of elections to the United States House of Representatives , which had heretofore been regulated by state governments. In particular, the bill would have permitted federal circuit courts (upon
238-554: A League of Nations mandate ) and the Soviet Union on 18 September 1934, but the Empire of Japan and Germany (under Hitler) withdrew in 1933. This marked the League's largest extent at 58 member states. In December 1920, Argentina quit (being absent from all sessions and votes) without formally withdrawing, on rejection of an Argentine resolution that all sovereign states would be admitted to
357-466: A "permanent league of neutral nations" to work for peace and disarmament. Within months, a call was made for an international women's conference to be held in The Hague . Coordinated by Mia Boissevain , Aletta Jacobs and Rosa Manus , the congress, which opened on 28 April 1915 was attended by 1,136 participants from neutral nations, and resulted in the establishment of an organisation which would become
476-561: A League with the reservation that only Congress could take the U.S. into war. Lodge gained a majority of Senators and Wilson refused to allow a compromise. The Senate voted on the ratification on 19 March 1920, and the 49–35 vote fell short of the needed 2/3 majority . The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of
595-430: A bitter fight over the principle of commercial reciprocity with Newfoundland. In a letter to Theodore Roosevelt, Lodge wrote, "Porto Rico is not forgotten and we mean to have it". Lodge was a vocal proponent of immigration restrictions, for a number of reasons. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, significant numbers of immigrants, primarily from Eastern and Southern Europe, were migrating to industrial centers in
714-624: A body. In the midst of the War, Wilson refused. In 1915, a body similar to the Bryce Group was set up in the United States, led by former president William Howard Taft . It was called the League to Enforce Peace . It advocated the use of arbitration in conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on aggressive countries. None of these early organisations envisioned a continuously functioning body; with
833-465: A common theme in the nativist movement of the era. In an address to the New England Society of Brooklyn in 1888, Lodge stated: Let every man honor and love the land of his birth and the race from which he springs and keep their memory green. It is a pious and honorable duty. But let us have done with British-Americans and Irish-Americans and German-Americans, and so on, and all be Americans ... If
952-421: A condition of durable peace, "behind international law, and behind all treaty arrangements for preventing or limiting hostilities, some form of international sanction should be devised which would give pause to the hardiest aggressor." The war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage. Several empires collapsed: first
1071-534: A federal examiner was serving, the Attorney General could request that federal observers monitor activities within the county's polling place. Henry Cabot Lodge Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Other Henry Cabot Lodge (May 12, 1850 – November 9, 1924)
1190-407: A good choice for the nations of the world. Support for Geneva as the selection came from Swiss Federal Councillor Gustave Ador and economist William Rappard. The Palais Wilson on Geneva's western lakeshore, named after Woodrow Wilson, was the League's first permanent home. The covenant had ambiguities, as Carole Fink points out. There was not a good fit between Wilson's "revolutionary conception of
1309-622: A higher in sufficient numbers, history teaches us that the lower race will prevail. As the public voice of the Immigration Restriction League , Lodge argued in support of literacy tests for incoming immigrants. The tests would be designed to exclude members of those races he deemed "most alien to the body of the American people". He proposed that the United States should temporarily shut out all further entries, particularly persons of low education or skill, to more efficiently assimilate
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#17328448480991428-666: A lifelong friendship with Adams. As a popular historian of the United States, Lodge focused on the early Federalist Era . He published biographies of George Washington and the prominent Federalists Alexander Hamilton , Daniel Webster , and his great-grandfather George Cabot , as well as A Short History of the English Colonies in America . In 1898, he published The Story of the Revolution in serial form in Scribner's Magazine . Lodge
1547-664: A major speech before the legislature voted, Lodge took pride in his long selfless service to the state. He emphasized that he had never engaged in corruption or self-dealing. He rarely campaigned on his own behalf but now he made his case, explaining his important roles in civil service reform, maintaining the gold standard, expanding the Navy, developing policies for the Philippine Islands, and trying to restrict immigration by illiterate Europeans, as well as his support for some progressive reforms. Most of all he appealed to party loyalty. Lodge
1666-412: A man is going to be an American at all let him be so without any qualifying adjectives; and if he is going to be something else, let him drop the word American from his personal description. He did not believe, however, that all races were equally capable or worthy of being assimilated. In The Great Peril of Unrestricted Immigration , he wrote that "you can take a Hindoo and give him the highest education
1785-496: A petition by 500 citizens from any district) to appoint federal supervisors for congressional elections. Supervisors would have the power to attend elections, inspect registration lists, verify doubtful voter information, administer oaths to challenged voters, stop illegal immigrants from voting, and certify the vote count. Perhaps most controversially, the supervisor would have the power to request Deputy United States Marshals to secure elections by force if deemed necessary. The bill
1904-399: A pressure group within the then-governing Liberal Party . In Dickinson's 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his "League of Peace" as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation. He felt that the secret diplomacy of the early twentieth century had brought about war, and thus, could write that, "the impossibility of war, I believe, would be increased in proportion as
2023-463: A threat to the stability of Europe. However, apart from policy differences, even before the end of Wilson's first term and well before America's entry into the Great War, Lodge confided to Teddy Roosevelt, "I never expected to hate anyone in politics with the hatred I feel toward Wilson." In January 1921, Lodge led the deliberate obstruction of the confirmation of 10,000 presidential Wilson appointments to
2142-775: A year in September. The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the council, the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities. The Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly's business. It began with four permanent members – Great Britain , France , Italy , and Japan – and four non-permanent members that were elected by
2261-583: Is capable of greater things than that. Following American victory in the Spanish–American War , Lodge came to represent the imperialist faction of the Senate, those who called for the annexation of the Philippines . Lodge maintained that the United States needed to have a strong navy and be more involved in foreign affairs. However, Lodge was never on good terms with John Hay , who served as Secretary of State under McKinley and Roosevelt, 1898–1905. They had
2380-729: The 1939 New York World's Fair , a semi-official flag and emblem for the League of Nations emerged: two five-pointed stars within a blue pentagon. They symbolised the Earth's five continents and "five races ". A bow at the top displayed the English name ("League of Nations"), while another at the bottom showed the French (" Société des Nations "). The League consisted of 42 founding members in November 1920. Six other states joined in its founding year (by December 1920), and seven more joined by September 1924, bringing
2499-570: The Axis powers in the 1930s. Its credibility was weakened because the United States never joined. Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy left in 1937, and Spain left in 1939. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland . Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy
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#17328448480992618-554: The Fourteen Points of January 1918), as well as the work of the Phillimore Commission. The outcome of House's work and Wilson's own first draft proposed the termination of "unethical" state behaviour, including forms of espionage and dishonesty. Methods of compulsion against recalcitrant states would include severe measures, such as "blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of
2737-558: The Lodge reservations , influenced the structure of the modern United Nations . Lodge received four degrees from Harvard University and was a widely published historian. His close friendship with Theodore Roosevelt began as early as 1884 and lasted their entire lifetimes, even surviving Roosevelt's bolt from the Republican Party in 1912. As a representative, Lodge sponsored the unsuccessful Lodge Bill of 1890, which sought to protect
2856-688: The President of the Senate , Vice President Levi P. Morton , because Silver Republicans in the West traded it away for Southern support of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act and Northern Republicans traded it away for Southern support of the McKinley Tariff . The 15th Amendment to the US Constitution states: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by
2975-499: The Rockefeller Foundation . It made major grants designed to build up the technical expertise of the League staff. Ludovic Tournès argues that by the 1930s the foundations had changed the League from a "Parliament of Nations" to a modern think tank that used specialised expertise to provide an in-depth impartial analysis of international issues. The official languages of the League of Nations were French and English. During
3094-697: The Russian Empire in February 1917, followed by the German Empire , Austro-Hungarian Empire and Ottoman Empire . Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as " the war to end all wars ", and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. One proposed remedy
3213-536: The Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and the leader of the Senate Republicans. From that position, he led the opposition to Wilson's Treaty of Versailles, proposing 14 reservations to the treaty. His strongest objection was to the requirement that all nations repel aggression, fearing that this would erode congressional powers and erode American sovereignty; those objections had a major role in producing
3332-510: The Spanish flu epidemic . By 1919, and even more so by the following decade, the Republican Party had changed so much that they were actually usually to the right of the Democratic Party on economic issues; Lodge himself was known as one of the most conservative Republicans in the Senate, the leading opponent to the League of Nations , and one of the nation's leading nativists . The Lodge Bill
3451-514: The Treaty of Versailles , signed on 28 June 1919. French women's rights advocates invited international feminists to participate in a parallel conference to the Paris Conference in hopes that they could gain permission to participate in the official conference. The Inter-Allied Women's Conference asked to be allowed to submit suggestions to the peace negotiations and commissions and were granted
3570-607: The United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League. Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace , it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security , gave a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilisation and financial stability , especially in Central Europe in
3689-515: The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). At the close of the conference, two delegations of women were dispatched to meet European heads of state over the next several months. They secured agreement from reluctant foreign ministers, who overall felt that such a body would be ineffective, but agreed to participate in or not impede creation of a neutral mediating body, if other nations agreed and if President Woodrow Wilson would initiate
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3808-578: The Zürich Peace Conference held between 17 and 19 May 1919, the women of the WILPF condemned the terms of the Treaty of Versailles for both its punitive measures, as well as its failure to provide for condemnation of violence and exclusion of women from civil and political participation. Upon reading the Rules of Procedure for the League of Nations, Catherine Marshall , a British suffragist, discovered that
3927-412: The patriotism of American citizens by objecting to what he saw as the weakening of national sovereignty: "I have loved but one flag and I can not share that devotion and give affection to the mongrel banner invented for a league." Lodge was reluctant to involve the United States in world affairs in anything less than a pre-eminent role: The United States is the world's best hope, but if you fetter her in
4046-451: The 1860 kidnapping of a classmate and gave testimony leading to the arrest and conviction of the kidnappers. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Lodge's father wanted to ride into battle at the head of a cavalry regiment he had personally put together, but his father missed the chance, possibly due to a bad knee from a riding injury, and in September 1862, Lodge's father suddenly died. He
4165-468: The 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics , slavery , child labour , colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation. Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to
4284-399: The Assembly for a three-year term. The first non-permanent members were Belgium , Brazil , Greece , and Spain . The composition of the Council was changed several times. The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926. Werner Dankwort of Germany pushed for his country to join the League; joining in 1926, Germany became
4403-558: The Attorney General or the United States District Court for the District of Columbia determined that the change did not have a discriminatory purpose and would not have a discriminatory effect. In addition, the Attorney General could designate a county covered by these special provisions for the appointment of a federal examiner to review the qualifications of persons who wanted to register to vote. Further, in those counties where
4522-487: The Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on
4641-614: The Council take action aiming at the international organisation of intellectual work, which it did by adopting a report presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a committee on intellectual co-operation to meet in Geneva in August 1922. The French philosopher Henri Bergson became the first chairman of the committee. The work of the committee included: an inquiry into
4760-644: The IPU by 1914. Its foundational aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were established to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure was designed as a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League. At the start of the First World War, the first schemes for an international organisation to prevent future wars began to gain considerable public support, particularly in Great Britain and
4879-460: The League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out." At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by
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4998-400: The League as a solid replacement for a corrupt alliance system, a guardian of international order, and protector of small states," versus Lloyd George's desire for a "cheap, self-enforcing, peace, such as had been maintained by the old and more fluid Concert of Europe." Furthermore, the League, according to Carole Fink, was, "deliberately excluded from such great-power prerogatives as freedom of
5117-492: The League of Nations came into force. On 1 November 1920, the headquarters of the League was moved from London to Geneva , where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920. Geneva made sense as an ideal city for the League, since Switzerland had been a neutral country for centuries and was already the headquarters for the International Red Cross. Its strong democracy and location in central Europe made it
5236-595: The League of Nations, Afghanistan abolished slavery in 1923, Iraq in 1924, Nepal in 1926, Transjordan and Persia in 1929, Bahrain in 1937, and Ethiopia in 1942. Led by Fridtjof Nansen , the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June 1921 to look after the interests of refugees, including overseeing their repatriation and, when necessary, resettlement. At the end of the First World War, there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia; within two years of
5355-475: The League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by the peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frédéric Passy in 1889 (and still exists as an international body focused on the world's various elected legislative bodies). The IPU was founded with an international scope, with a third of the members of parliaments (in the 24 countries that had parliaments) serving as members of
5474-461: The League on the grounds that "Ethiopia had not reached a state of civilisation and internal security sufficient to warrant her admission." The League also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55 to 4 per cent. Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking of women and children . Partly as a result of pressure brought by
5593-636: The League's size to 55. Costa Rica withdrew in December 1924, making it the member to have most quickly withdrawn, and Brazil became the first founding member to withdraw in June 1926. Germany (under the Weimar Republic ) was admitted to the League of Nations through a resolution passed on 8 September 1926. The League's size remained at 54 for the next five years. Through the first half of the 1930s, six more states joined, including Iraq in 1932 (newly independent from
5712-462: The League. It resumed its participation in September 1933. The League's membership declined through the second half of the 1930s as it weakened. Between 1935 and the start of World War II in Europe in September 1939, only Egypt joined (becoming the last state to join), 11 members left, and 3 members ceased to exist or fell under military occupation (Ethiopia, Austria, and Czechoslovakia). The Soviet Union
5831-576: The League. The British were particularly active in setting up junior branches for secondary students. The League of Nations was relatively more universal and inclusive in its membership and structure than previous international organisations, but the organisation enshrined racial hierarchy by curtailing the right to self-determination and prevented decolonisation. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Wilson, Cecil and Smuts all put forward their draft proposals. After lengthy negotiations between
5950-467: The League: representation had been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers' and workers' organisations. Albert Thomas was its first director. The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an eight-hour work day and forty-eight-hour working week. It also campaigned to end child labour, increase the rights of women in
6069-538: The Lodge bill. The Republican Party's commitment to African-American rights had already been declining since Reconstruction ended in 1877, and the 1890 Lodge Bill proved to be the last relic of the Republican commitment to civil rights. The NAACP wrote to Lodge in 1919 to ask him to again draft a voting rights bill, but Lodge never responded, as Lodge and other Republicans were more focused on women's suffrage, World War I and
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#17328448480996188-690: The Massachusetts Society of the Sons of the American Revolution . He was assigned national membership number 4,901. That same year, following the lynching of eleven Italian Americans in New Orleans, Lodge published an article blaming the victims and proposing new restrictions on Italian immigration. Lodge’s support for voting rights did not extend to women. He was a leading opponent of women’s suffrage . Lodge did not change his position even after
6307-552: The Paris-based Office international d'hygiène publique (OIHP) founded in 1907 after the International Sanitary Conferences , was discharging most of the practical health-related questions, and its relations with the League's Health Committee were often conflictual. The Health Committee's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League's health work, and prepare work to be presented to
6426-747: The Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These included the Disarmament Commission, the International Labour Organization (ILO) , the Mandates Commission, the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (precursor to UNESCO ), the Permanent Central Opium Board , the Commission for Refugees,
6545-694: The Republican Party. Nonetheless, both reluctantly supported James Blaine and protectionism in the 1884 election . Blaine lost narrowly. Lodge was first elected to the US Senate in 1892 and easily reelected time and again but his greatest challenge came in his reelection bid in January 1911. The Democrats had made significant gains in Massachusetts and the Republicans were split between the progressive and conservative wings, with Lodge trying to mollify both sides. In
6664-455: The Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the League's civil service. In 1931 the staff numbered 707. The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote. It met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920, it convened once
6783-424: The Slavery Commission, and the Economic and Financial Organization . Three of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War: the International Labour Organization, the Permanent Court of International Justice (as the International Court of Justice ), and the Health Organisation (restructured as the World Health Organization ). The Permanent Court of International Justice
6902-477: The United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude” Its purpose was to acknowledge African American men’s voting rights. After the passage of the 15th Amendment in 1870, African Americans were subjected to voting restrictions in certain states. Disenfranchisement of African Americans came in various forms, such as poll taxes, literacy tests, white primaries, and grandfather clauses. Julius Caesar Chappelle (1852–1904)
7021-412: The United States. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson , a British political scientist, coined the term "League of Nations" in 1914 and drafted a scheme for its organisation. Together with Lord Bryce , he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group , later the League of Nations Union . The group became steadily more influential among the public and as
7140-447: The United States. Lodge argued that unskilled foreign labor was undermining the standard of living for American workers, and that a mass influx of uneducated immigrants would result in social conflict and national decline. In a May 1891 article on Italian immigration, Lodge expressed his concern that immigration by "the races who have peopled the United States" was declining, while "the immigration of people removed from us in race and blood"
7259-421: The War and Navy Departments in the US Senate on the grounds that confirmation of these so-called cabinet "favorite" appointments would embarrass the Harding Administration. He served as chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (1919–1924). He also served as chairman of the Senate Republican Conference from 1918 to 1924. His leadership of the Senate Republicans has led some to retrospectively call him
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#17328448480997378-436: The arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles , and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage. The first meeting of
7497-411: The commission's foundation, it had helped 425,000 of them return home. It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis, helping to prevent the spread of cholera , smallpox and dysentery as well as feeding the refugees in the camps. It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless people . The Committee for the Study of
7616-463: The commission's results were later incorporated into the Covenant of the League of Nations . The French authorities also drafted a much more far-reaching proposal in June 1918; they advocated annual meetings of a council to settle all disputes, as well as an "international army" to enforce its decisions. American President Woodrow Wilson instructed Edward M. House to draft a US plan which reflected Wilson's own idealistic views (first articulated in
7735-516: The conditions of intellectual life, assistance to countries where intellectual life was endangered, creation of national committees for intellectual cooperation, cooperation with international intellectual organisations, protection of intellectual property, inter-university co-operation, co-ordination of bibliographical work and international interchange of publications, and international co-operation in archaeological research. The Slavery Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across
7854-492: The council or the Assembly. The Court was open to all the nations of the world under certain broad conditions. The International Labour Organization was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles. The ILO, although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget control of the Assembly, was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body, its own General Conference and its own Secretariat. Its constitution differed from that of
7973-436: The council. This body focused on ending leprosy , malaria , and yellow fever , the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organisation also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics, including organising a large education campaign. Linked with health, but also commercial concerns, was the topic of narcotics control. Introduced by
8092-438: The course of the diplomatic efforts surrounding World War I , both sides had to clarify their long-term war aims. By 1916 in Britain, fighting on the side of the Allies , and in the neutral United States, long-range thinkers had begun to design a unified international organisation to prevent future wars. Historian Peter Yearwood argues that when the new coalition government of David Lloyd George took power in December 1916, there
8211-431: The creation of a mandate system for captured colonies of the Central Powers during the war. Cecil focused on the administrative side and proposed annual council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members. He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League's administrative duties. According to historian Patricia Clavin, Cecil and the British continued their leadership of
8330-417: The day that President Wilson urged Congress to declare war , Lodge and Alexander Bannwart , a pacifist constituent who wanted Lodge to vote against the war, got into a fistfight in the U.S. Capitol. Bannwart was arrested but Lodge opted not to press charges. Bannwart later sued Lodge to have the record corrected; initial news reports suggested that Bannwart hit Lodge first, but Lodge acknowledged in settling
8449-458: The de facto Senate Majority Leader . During his term in office, he and another powerful senator, Albert J. Beveridge , pushed for the construction of a new navy. In 1919, as the unofficial Senate majority leader, Lodge dealt with the debate over the Treaty of Versailles and the Senate's ultimate rejection of the treaty. Lodge wanted to join the League of Nations , but with amendments that would protect American sovereignty . Lodge appealed to
8568-519: The delegates, the Hurst – Miller draft was finally produced as a basis for the Covenant . After more negotiation and compromise, the delegates finally approved of the proposal to create the League of Nations ( French : Société des Nations , German : Völkerbund ) on 25 January 1919. The final Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of
8687-478: The development of a rules-based global order into the 1920s and 1930s, with a primary focus on the League of Nations. The British goal was to systematise and normalise the economic and social relations between states, markets, and civil society. They gave priority to business and banking issues, but also considered the needs of ordinary women, children and the family as well. They moved beyond high-level intellectual discussions, and set up local organisations to support
8806-497: The earliest recipients of a PhD in history from an American university. Lodge's dissertation, "The Anglo-Saxon Land Law", was published in a compilation "Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law", alongside his PhD classmates: James Laurence Laughlin on "The Anglo-Saxon Legal Procedure" and Ernest Young on "The Anglo-Saxon Family Law". All three were supervised by Henry Adams , who contributed "The Anglo-Saxon Courts of Law". Lodge maintained
8925-528: The election the Lodge-Roosevelt friendship resumed. In 1890, Lodge co-authored the Federal Elections Bill , along with Senator George Frisbie Hoar , that guaranteed federal protection for African American voting rights. Although the proposed legislation was supported by President Benjamin Harrison , the bill was blocked by filibustering Democrats in the Senate. In 1891, he became a member of
9044-563: The exception of the Fabian Society in England, they maintained a legalistic approach that would limit the international body to a court of justice. The Fabians were the first to argue for a "council" of states, necessarily the Great Powers , who would adjudicate world affairs, and for the creation of a permanent secretariat to enhance international co-operation across a range of activities. In
9163-431: The fifth permanent member of the Council. Later, after Germany and Japan both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven, and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the council a total of fifteen members. The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939. The League oversaw
9282-441: The first Geneva Conventions establishing laws dealing with humanitarian relief during wartime, and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. Theodore Roosevelt at the acceptance for his Nobel Prize in 1910, said: "it would be a masterstroke if those great powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace." One small forerunner of
9401-400: The guidelines were completely undemocratic and they were modified based on her suggestion. The League would be made up of a Assembly (representing all member states), a Council (with membership limited to major powers), and a permanent Secretariat. Member states were expected to "respect and preserve as against external aggression" the territorial integrity of other members and to disarm "to
9520-584: The hope that each state would declare itself a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings, thus promoting peaceful society worldwide. International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. By 1910, international law developed, with
9639-497: The interests and quarrels of other nations, if you tangle her in the intrigues of Europe, you will destroy her power for good, and endanger her very existence. Leave her to march freely through the centuries to come, as in the years that have gone. Strong, generous, and confident, she has nobly served mankind. Beware how you trifle with your marvelous inheritance; this great land of ordered liberty. For if we stumble and fall, freedom and civilization everywhere will go down in ruin. Lodge
9758-523: The issues of foreign policy should be known to and controlled by public opinion." The 'Proposals' of the Bryce Group were circulated widely, both in England and the US, where they had a profound influence on the nascent international movement. In January 1915, a peace conference directed by Jane Addams was held in the neutral United States. The delegates adopted a platform calling for creation of international bodies with administrative and legislative powers to develop
9877-550: The junior senator from Massachusetts, John Weeks , lost his seat in 1918 due to his opposition to equal suffrage. Lodge was a strong backer of U.S. intervention in Cuba in 1898, arguing that it was the moral responsibility of the United States to do so: Of the sympathies of the American people, generous, liberty-loving, I have no question. They are with the Cubans in their struggle for freedom. I believe our people would welcome any action on
9996-423: The lawsuit that he had hit Bannwart first. This is the only known instance of a U.S. Senator attacking a constituent. After the United States entered the war, Lodge continued to attack Wilson as hopelessly idealistic, assailing Wilson's Fourteen Points as unrealistic and weak. He contended that Germany needed to be militarily and economically crushed and saddled with harsh penalties so that it could never again be
10115-530: The lowest point consistent with domestic safety." All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war. The Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgements on the disputes. Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919, the United States never joined. Senate Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge wanted
10234-724: The millions who had already come. From 1907 to 1911, he served on the Dillingham Commission , a joint congressional committee established to study the era's immigration patterns and make recommendations to Congress based on its findings. The Commission's recommendations led to the Immigration Act of 1917 . Lodge was a staunch advocate of entering World War I on the side of the Allied Powers , attacking President Woodrow Wilson for poor military preparedness and accusing pacifists of undermining American patriotism. On April 2, 1917,
10353-455: The part of the United States to put an end to the terrible state of things existing there. We can stop it. We can stop it peacefully. We can stop it, in my judgment, by pursuing proper diplomacy and offering our good offices. Let it once be understood that we mean to stop the horrible state of things in Cuba and it will be stopped. The great power of the United States, if it is once invoked and uplifted,
10472-413: The pre-First World War methods of law and politics. The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been proposed as early as 1795, when Immanuel Kant 's Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch outlined the idea of a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace between states. Kant argued for the establishment of a peaceful world community, not in a sense of a global government, but in
10591-474: The prospective voter's grandfather had been a registered voter, the " grandfather clause "), that effectively prevented blacks from voting. That year Mississippi passed a new constitution that disfranchised most blacks, and other states would soon follow the "Mississippi plan". After passing the House by just six votes, the Lodge bill was successfully filibustered by Democrats in the Senate, with little action by
10710-509: The right to sit on commissions dealing specifically with women and children. Though they asked for enfranchisement and full legal protection under the law equal with men, those rights were ignored. Women won the right to serve in all capacities, including as staff or delegates in the League of Nations organisation. They also won a declaration that member nations should prevent trafficking of women and children and should equally support humane conditions for children, women and men labourers. At
10829-537: The seas and naval disarmament, the Monroe Doctrine and the internal affairs of the French and British empires, and inter-Allied debts and German reparations, not to mention the Allied intervention and the settlement of borders with Soviet Russia." Although the United States never joined, unofficial observers became more and more involved, especially in the 1930s. American philanthropies became heavily involved, especially
10948-537: The seat of the League at Geneva, comprised a body of experts in various spheres under the direction of the general secretary . Its principal sections were Political, Financial and Economics, Transit, Minorities and Administration (administering the Saar and Danzig ), Mandates, Disarmament, Health, Social (Opium and Traffic in Women and Children), Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux, Legal, and Information. The staff of
11067-494: The second International Opium Convention , the Permanent Central Opium Board had to supervise the statistical reports on trade in opium , morphine, cocaine and heroin. The board also established a system of import certificates and export authorisations for the legal international trade in narcotics . The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual cooperation since its creation. The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that
11186-693: The veto power of the United Nations Security Council . Lodge remained in the Senate until his death in 1924. Lodge was born in Beverly, Massachusetts . His father was John Ellerton Lodge of the Lodge family . His mother was Anna Cabot, a member of the Cabot family , through whom he was a great-grandson of George Cabot . Lodge was a Boston Brahmin . He grew up on Boston's Beacon Hill and spent part of his childhood in Nahant, Massachusetts , where he witnessed
11305-517: The victorious Allied Powers of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , when
11424-458: The voting rights of African Americans and introduce a national secret ballot. As a senator, Lodge took a more active role in foreign policy, supporting the Spanish–American War , expansion of American territory overseas, and American entry into World War I . He also supported immigration restrictions, becoming a member of the Immigration Restriction League and influencing the Immigration Act of 1917 . After World War I, Lodge became Chairman of
11543-701: The workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen. After the demise of the League, the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946. The League's Health Organisation had three bodies: the Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League; the General Advisory Council or Conference, an executive section consisting of medical experts; and the Health Committee. In practice,
11662-506: The world and to use any force that may be necessary..." The two principal drafters and architects of the covenant of the League of Nations were the British politician Lord Robert Cecil and the South African statesman Jan Smuts . Smuts's proposals included the creation of a council of the great powers as permanent members and a non-permanent selection of the minor states. He also proposed
11781-460: The world can afford ... but you cannot make him an Englishman" and cautioned against the mixing of "higher" and "lower" races: On the moral qualities of the English-speaking race, therefore, rest our history, our victories, and all our future. There is only one way in which you can lower those qualities or weaken those characteristics, and that is by breeding them out. If a lower race mixes with
11900-406: The world, and fought forced prostitution. Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries. The League secured a commitment from Ethiopia to end slavery as a condition of membership in 1923, and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and intertribal slavery. The United Kingdom had not supported Ethiopian membership of
12019-624: Was a precursor of the various Civil Rights legislation that followed. The bill's failure led to an increase in voter suppression until Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , which was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson . The Voting Rights Act outlawed the discriminatory voting practices adopted in many southern states after the Civil War, including literacy tests. It stated that "jurisdictions covered by these special provisions could not implement any change affecting voting until
12138-409: Was allocated by the Assembly (the League was supported financially by its member states). The relations between the assembly and the council and the competencies of each were for the most part not explicitly defined. Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of competence of the league or affecting peace in the world. Particular questions or tasks might be referred to either. Unanimity
12257-414: Was also motivated by political concerns; he strongly disliked Wilson personally and was eager to find an issue for the Republican Party to run on in the presidential election of 1920 . League of Nations The League of Nations ( LN or LoN ; French : Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃] , SdN ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission
12376-464: Was among the earliest black Republican legislators in the northern United States, representing Boston and serving from 1883–1886. In 1890, Chappelle gave a political speech for the right of blacks to vote at an "enthusiastic" meeting at Boston's Faneuil Hall to support the federal elections bill. He was featured in a front page article in The New York Age newspaper covering his support of
12495-560: Was an American politician, historian, lawyer, and statesman from Massachusetts . A member of the Republican Party , he served in the United States Senate from 1893 to 1924 and is best known for his positions on foreign policy. His successful crusade against Woodrow Wilson 's Treaty of Versailles ensured that the United States never joined the League of Nations and his penned conditions against that treaty, known collectively as
12614-609: Was cousin to the American polymath Charles Peirce . In 1872, he graduated from Harvard College , where he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon , the Porcellian Club , and the Hasty Pudding Club . In 1874, he graduated from Harvard Law School , and was admitted to the bar in 1875, practicing at the Boston firm now known as Ropes & Gray . After traveling through Europe, Lodge returned to Harvard, and, in 1876, became one of
12733-488: Was created primarily to enforce the ability of blacks, predominantly Republican at the time, to vote in the Southern United States , as provided for in the constitution. The Fifteenth Amendment already formally guaranteed that right, but white southern Democrats had passed laws related to voter registration and electoral requirements, such as requiring payment of poll taxes and literacy tests (often waived if
12852-664: Was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1878. In 1881, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society . He was also a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society , and served as its president from 1915 to 1924. As such, Lodge penned a preface to The Education of Henry Adams (which had been written by Adams in 1905 and printed in a private edition for family and friends) when this classic autobiography
12971-565: Was expelled on 14 December 1939 for invading Finland , as one of the last acts of the League before it ceased functioning. The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly, the council, and the Permanent Secretariat. It also had two essential wings: the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organization . In addition, there were several auxiliary agencies and bodies. Each organ's budget
13090-474: Was led by Walter Phillimore (and became known as the Phillimore Committee), but also included Eyre Crowe , William Tyrrell , and Cecil Hurst . The recommendations of the so-called Phillimore Commission included the establishment of a "Conference of Allied States" that would arbitrate disputes and impose sanctions on offending states. The proposals were approved by the British government, and much of
13209-401: Was on the rise. He considered northern Italians superior candidates for immigration to southern Italians, not only because they tended to be better educated, had a higher standard of living, and had a "higher capacity for skilled work", but because they were more "Teutonic" than their southern counterparts, whose immigration he sought to restrict. Lodge was a supporter of "100% Americanism",
13328-601: Was posthumously published by the Massachusetts Historical Society in September 1918. In 1880–1882, Lodge served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives . Lodge represented his home state in the United States House of Representatives from 1887 to 1893 and in the Senate from 1893 to 1924. Along with his close friend Theodore Roosevelt, Lodge was sympathetic to the concerns of the Mugwump faction of
13447-407: Was provided for by the Covenant, but not established by it. The Council and the Assembly established its constitution. Its judges were elected by the Council and the Assembly, and its budget was provided by the latter. The Court was to hear and decide any international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it. It might also give an advisory opinion on any dispute or question referred to it by
13566-424: Was reelected by five votes. Lodge was very close to Theodore Roosevelt for both of their entire careers. However, Lodge was too conservative to accept Roosevelt's attacks on the judiciary in 1910, and his call for the initiative, referendum, and recall. Lodge stood silent when Roosevelt broke with the party and ran as a third-party candidate in 1912. Lodge voted for Taft instead of Roosevelt; after Woodrow Wilson won
13685-469: Was required for the decisions of both the assembly and the council, except in matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members. This requirement was a reflection of the league's belief in the sovereignty of its component nations; the league sought a solution by consent, not by dictation. In case of a dispute, the consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity. The Permanent Secretariat, established at
13804-538: Was the Abyssinia Crisis , in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose: to prevent another world war. It was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years;
13923-432: Was the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage war, and penalties that made war unattractive. In London Balfour commissioned the first official report into the matter in early 1918, under the initiative of Lord Robert Cecil . The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918. It
14042-753: Was to maintain world peace . It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War . The main organisation ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations . As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world. The League's primary goals were stated in its eponymous Covenant . They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration . Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking ,
14161-431: Was widespread discussion among intellectuals and diplomats of the desirability of establishing such an organisation. When Lloyd George was challenged by Wilson to state his position with an eye on the postwar situation, he endorsed such an organisation. Wilson himself included in his Fourteen Points in January 1918 a "league of nations to ensure peace and justice." British foreign secretary, Arthur Balfour , argued that, as
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