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102-421: While such services were offered by Canadian citizens or foreign immigrants with permanent residence (PR) status, government provisions for a room and board deduction as well as a basic rate of pay that frequently total provincial minimum wage standard allowed for the program to be more affordable for many families. Caregivers who came to Canada through the program are eligible to apply for PR status after working

204-448: A Crown servant ), or has committed criminal or immigration infractions resulting in a removal order . Canadian permanent resident holders can voluntarily renounce status after filling form IMM 5782. A permanent resident does not lose their status if their permanent resident card expires. There have been three types of PR card in circulation: the 2002, the 2009 and the 2015 version. As all PR card's lifespan cannot exceed five years,

306-568: A Gender-based Analysis Plus (GBA+) report on the Live-in Caregiver program. This analysis led the government to identify issues in the program relating to the requirement that caregivers needed to maintain residency at the same address where they were employed. The 2020 Annual Report to Parliament by the Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship indicates that employees were subject to exploitation, abuse and isolation from their families as

408-440: A stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary; it can be, for example, an expectation about the group's personality, preferences, appearance or ability. Stereotypes are often overgeneralized , inaccurate, and resistant to new information . A stereotype does not necessarily need to be

510-497: A 2-D barcode. PR cards issued after 1 February 2012 no longer contain the holder's signature. In circulation since 25 November 2015, the 2015 version of the card has an RFID chip which can be used for future land border crossings. Unlike the biometric chips found in Canadian passports, the RFID chip does not store any personal data, but instead a unique identifier. When entering Canada from

612-597: A PR card, so a permanent resident who does not hold a valid PR card continues to be a permanent resident regardless of whether he or she is physically in Canada, if he or she satisfies the residency obligation and the status has not been revoked, although it would be difficult to prove the person's status in many cases. A PR card is the most convenient way of proving status to authorities within Canada (e.g. provincial governments, employers, schools). All permanent residents have other documentation (such as original landing papers) which

714-423: A category to identify response patterns. Second, categorized information is more specific than non-categorized information, as categorization accentuates properties that are shared by all members of a group. Third, people can readily describe objects in a category because objects in the same category have distinct characteristics. Finally, people can take for granted the characteristics of a particular category because

816-445: A certain amount of time. Currently, a person must have been living in Canada as a Permanent Resident for three years (1095 days) out of the five years preceding their application (with up to one year of the time before becoming a permanent resident included). They also have the right to sponsor relatives for permanent residence, subject to fulfilling residence criteria and assurance of support requirements. Permanent residents do not have

918-469: A cognitive mechanism known as illusory correlation – an erroneous inference about the relationship between two events. If two statistically infrequent events co-occur, observers overestimate the frequency of co-occurrence of these events. The underlying reason is that rare, infrequent events are distinctive and salient and, when paired, become even more so. The heightened salience results in more attention and more effective encoding , which strengthens

1020-419: A commercial carrier (flight, bus, etc) a permanent resident must present either their permanent resident card or a Permanent Resident Travel Document issued by a Canadian diplomatic office. The Canadian permanent resident card is automatically lost upon becoming a Canadian citizen. However it can be revoked if the bearer is outside of Canada for longer than 730 days in a five year period (unless serving abroad as

1122-536: A cost of CA$ 50 to the applicant. There is no fee for a first PR card provided that the applicant provides an address before the 180-day deadline. Permanent residents as of 28 June 2002 and new permanent residents who did not provide a Canadian residential address, or whose PR card was expired, lost, stolen or damaged, must apply to IRCC's processing centre in Sydney, Nova Scotia , for a new card. The applicant must demonstrate he or she has resided for at least 730 days before

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1224-444: A digit depends on its position. The weight sequence is 7, 3, 1 and it repeats. All values are added and the result divided by 10 gives the check digit. It is necessary to supply a Canadian residential address at the time of landing. If a Canadian address cannot be supplied at the time, one must be provided to IRCC within 180 days. Otherwise, a new application made to IRCC's processing centre in Sydney, Nova Scotia , will be required, at

1326-419: A group and being part of that group must also be salient for the individual. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y. Yzerbyt (2002) argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world. They are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information

1428-401: A gun or a harmless object (e.g., a mobile phone). Participants had to decide as quickly as possible whether to shoot the target. When the target person was armed, both black and white participants were faster in deciding to shoot the target when he was black than when he was white. When the target was unarmed, the participants avoided shooting him more quickly when he was white. Time pressure made

1530-612: A land port of entry, the RFID chip in the PR card will be read by RFID tag readers. The unique identifier is then transmitted to a secure database and the permanent resident's information is retrieved by the CBSA officer who will have information even before the vehicle stops at the inspection booth. The design is similar to the 2009 version, although an image of the Peace Tower is shown on the background. The new version also removed immigration category and

1632-449: A landmark study, David Hamilton and Richard Gifford (1976) examined the role of illusory correlation in stereotype formation. Subjects were instructed to read descriptions of behaviors performed by members of groups A and B. Negative behaviors outnumbered positive actions and group B was smaller than group A, making negative behaviors and membership in group B relatively infrequent and distinctive. Participants were then asked who had performed

1734-488: A large and functional industry in the Philippines to produce qualified applicants, individuals from nearly every nation can qualify. Some caregiver placement agencies are substantially broader through their international advertising and the use of immigration legal services. Mama (Inay) , a 2024 documentary film by Thea Loo, explores the impact of women's participation in the program on their children who were left behind in

1836-431: A maple leaf can be seen in the front. Comparing to the previous version, the 2009 version of the card, which was introduced on 24 August 2009, contains the same information as the previous version. The design, however, was significantly changed with a white background colour, a transparent window on the right side of the card, a second ghost image located in the transparent window, and the replacement of optical stripe with

1938-427: A minimum of two years within four years of their arrival (plus 3 months). For many who would not otherwise qualify for PR status under any other category, this was one of the motivations for participation. Standard qualifications were regulated federally, though conditions of employment were determined at a provincial level. Requirements included a minimum of 6 months of training or 1 year of compatible employment within

2040-546: A more negative stereotype of people from countries that were the United States's WWII enemies . If there are no changes to an intergroup relationship, then relevant stereotypes do not change. According to a third explanation, shared stereotypes are neither caused by the coincidence of common stimuli, nor by socialisation. This explanation posits that stereotypes are shared because group members are motivated to behave in certain ways, and stereotypes reflect those behaviours. It

2142-471: A negative assumption. They may be positive, neutral, or negative. An explicit stereotype refers to stereotypes that one is aware that one holds, and is aware that one is using to judge people. If person A is making judgments about a particular person B from group G , and person A has an explicit stereotype for group G , their decision bias can be partially mitigated using conscious control; however, attempts to offset bias due to conscious awareness of

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2244-471: A newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions: warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status . Groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources (e.g., college space) are perceived as warm, whereas high-status (e.g., economically or educationally successful) groups are considered competent. The groups within each of

2346-492: A permanent resident has expired, or will expire, on that date. It is the date after which the card must be replaced with a new card. It is not possible to apply for the PR card outside Canada. Instead, permanent residents wishing to travel to Canada who do not have a valid PR card may apply for a single use Permanent Resident Travel Document (PRTD) which allows a journey to Canada as a permanent resident. The application may only be submitted to Government of Canada offices abroad and

2448-452: A person's task of understanding his or her world less cognitively demanding. In the following situations, the overarching purpose of stereotyping is for people to put their collective self (their in-group membership) in a positive light: As mentioned previously, stereotypes can be used to explain social events. Henri Tajfel described his observations of how some people found that the antisemitic fabricated contents of The Protocols of

2550-583: A pretest had revealed that subjects had no preexisting expectations about attitudes toward euthanasia and the department that students belong to. The attribution error created the new stereotype that law students are more likely to support euthanasia. Nier et al. (2012) found that people who tend to draw dispositional inferences from behavior and ignore situational constraints are more likely to stereotype low-status groups as incompetent and high-status groups as competent. Participants listened to descriptions of two fictitious groups of Pacific Islanders , one of which

2652-486: A result of this residency requirement. The Live-in Caregiver program stopped accepting applications in 2014 due to a significant processing backlog of 27,000 applications. The government subsequently launched two pilot programs: Caring for Children Class and Caring for People with High Medical Needs. These programs ended the accommodation requirement, a major critique of the previous program. Following additional consultations,

2754-459: A set of actions: a person of group A or group B. Results showed that subjects overestimated the frequency with which both distinctive events, membership in group B and negative behavior, co-occurred, and evaluated group B more negatively. This despite the fact the proportion of positive to negative behaviors was equivalent for both groups and that there was no actual correlation between group membership and behaviors. Although Hamilton and Gifford found

2856-437: A similar effect for positive behaviors as the infrequent events, a meta-analytic review of studies showed that illusory correlation effects are stronger when the infrequent, distinctive information is negative. Hamilton and Gifford's distinctiveness-based explanation of stereotype formation was subsequently extended. A 1994 study by McConnell, Sherman, and Hamilton found that people formed stereotypes based on information that

2958-439: A social group and a domain or attribute. For example, one can have beliefs that women and men are equally capable of becoming successful electricians but at the same time many can associate electricians more with men than women. In social psychology , a stereotype is any thought widely adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of behaving intended to represent the entire group of those individuals or behaviors as

3060-495: A stereotype often fail at being truly impartial, due to either underestimating or overestimating the amount of bias being created by the stereotype. Implicit stereotypes are those that lay on individuals' subconsciousness, that they have no control or awareness of. "Implicit stereotypes are built based on two concepts, associative networks in semantic (knowledge) memory and automatic activation". Implicit stereotypes are automatic and involuntary associations that people make between

3162-402: A university education or training as registered nurses , making them overqualified for the jobs they are performing. Furthermore, caregiver responsibilities under the program often do not encourage the development of additional skills that could provide upward mobility within the national workforce. As such, the labour potential of caregivers is largely under-utilized. Scholars have criticized

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3264-501: A valid Canadian visa) are required to have an Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA) before boarding a flight to Canada. Hence permanent residents, including those from one of the visa-free countries (except the U.S.), need either a PR card or a PRTD to board a flight to Canada. A permanent resident holds many of the same rights and responsibilities as a Canadian citizen, including the right to live, work, and study in any province or territory of Canada . Permanent residents enjoy many of

3366-399: A valid PR card issued after 2002 to transit without visa under TWOV program. A Canadian permanent resident has the right to enter Canada under section 27(1) of IRPA, provided that their PR status has not been revoked, hence legally speaking, a permanent resident does not need a PR card to enter Canada. Due to the changes in visa policy, however, all permanent residents are required to hold

3468-492: A valid PR card to board a flight to Canada unless they hold a U.S. passport . As any person can approach one of the Canadian land ports of entry along the Canada–United States border , a permanent resident does not need to hold a valid PR card to enter Canada from the United States, although they may face difficulties when boarding a commercial carrier (bus, ship or train). Stereotype In social psychology ,

3570-508: A whole. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality. Within psychology and across other disciplines, different conceptualizations and theories of stereotyping exist, at times sharing commonalities, as well as containing contradictory elements. Even in the social sciences and some sub-disciplines of psychology, stereotypes are occasionally reproduced and can be identified in certain theories, for example, in assumptions about other cultures. The term stereotype comes from

3672-459: Is also acceptable. However, there is no legal requirement for a permanent resident to carry a PR card at all times. For visa-free travel, Canadian permanent residents require a PR card, unless the person's passport in itself is sufficient for exemption. A Canadian PR card holder may travel visa-free to the following countries if not already exempt: For non-visa-exempt nationals, the UK allows holders of

3774-471: Is an estimate of how people spontaneously stereotype U.S social groups of people using traits. Koch et al. conducted several studies asking participants to list groups and sort them according to their similarity. Using statistical techniques, they revealed three dimensions that explained the similarity ratings. These three dimensions were agency (A), beliefs (B), and communion (C). Agency is associated with reaching goals, standing out and socio-economic status and

3876-495: Is better to categorise ingroup members under different categories (e.g., Democrats versus Republican) than under a shared category (e.g., American). Finally, ingroup members may influence each other to arrive at a common outgroup stereotype. Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists may focus on an individual's experience with groups, patterns of communication about those groups, and intergroup conflict. As for sociologists, they may focus on

3978-415: Is important to note from this explanation that stereotypes are the consequence, not the cause, of intergroup relations . This explanation assumes that when it is important for people to acknowledge both their ingroup and outgroup, they will emphasise their difference from outgroup members, and their similarity to ingroup members. International migration creates more opportunities for intergroup relations, but

4080-425: Is more easily identified, recalled, predicted, and reacted to. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people. Between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible. Within stereotypes, objects or people are as similar to each other as possible. Gordon Allport has suggested possible answers to why people find it easier to understand categorized information. First, people can consult

4182-437: Is no longer as clearly and/or as positively differentiated from relevant outgroups, and they want to restore the intergroup differentiation to a state that favours the ingroup. Stereotypes can emphasize a person's group membership in two steps: Stereotypes emphasize the person's similarities with ingroup members on relevant dimensions, and also the person's differences from outgroup members on relevant dimensions. People change

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4284-565: Is one of the only documents that allow permanent residents to return to Canada by a commercial carrier. Permanent resident holders are entitled to apply for Canadian citizenship after continuously residing in Canada for at least 1,095 days during a 5 year period, presenting a good moral character , passing the Canadian Citizenship test , and swearing an Oath of Citizenship Like Canadian passports , all PR cards are issued by Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) and are

4386-489: Is related to competence in the SCM, with some examples of traits including poor and wealthy, powerful and powerless, low status and high status. Beliefs is associated with views on the world, morals and conservative-progressive beliefs with some examples of traits including traditional and modern, religious and science-oriented or conventional and alternative. Finally, communion is associated with connecting with others and fitting in and

4488-814: Is similar to warmth from the SCM, with some examples of traits including trustworthy and untrustworthy, cold and warm and repellent and likeable. According to research using this model, there is a curvilinear relationship between agency and communion. For example, if a group is high or low in the agency dimension then they may be seen as un-communal, whereas groups that are average in agency are seen as more communal. This model has many implications in predicting behaviour towards stereotyped groups. For example, Koch and colleagues recently proposed that perceived similarity in agency and beliefs increases inter-group cooperation. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. This idea has been refuted by contemporary studies that suggest

4590-465: Is statistically less frequent than desirable behavior. Since both events "blackness" and "undesirable behavior" are distinctive in the sense that they are infrequent, the combination of the two leads observers to overestimate the rate of co-occurrence. Similarly, in workplaces where women are underrepresented and negative behaviors such as errors occur less frequently than positive behaviors, women become more strongly associated with mistakes than men. In

4692-546: Is used for printing instead of the original. Outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype in English was in 1850, as a noun that meant 'image perpetuated without change'. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the modern psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion . Stereotypes, prejudice , racism, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts. Stereotypes are regarded as

4794-632: The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act . The permanent resident card was first proposed during the aftermath of the September 11 attacks in the United States. After the establishment of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act in 2002 the first first Canadian Permanent Resident cards were distributed on 28 June 2002. Starting from 10 November 2016, all travellers to Canada (except for Canadian citizens and permanent residents, U.S. citizens, nationals and lawful permanent residents, and travellers with

4896-513: The representativeness heuristic . The results show that sector as well as non-work role-referencing influences perceived employee professionalism but has little effect on the confirmation of particular public sector stereotypes. Moreover, the results do not confirm a congruity effect of consistent stereotypical information: non-work role-referencing does not aggravate the negative effect of sector affiliation on perceived employee professionalism. Research has shown that stereotypes can develop based on

4998-464: The right to vote in any federal, provincial, or municipal elections in Canada nor can they run for elected office in any level of government. However, several municipal governments in Canada, including Toronto , Vancouver , Halifax , and Calgary , have proposed giving permanent residents the right to vote in municipal elections , however these proposals made no avail. For national security reasons, permanent residents also cannot hold jobs in either

5100-429: The 1940s refuted the suggestion that stereotype contents cannot be changed at will. Those studies suggested that one group's stereotype of another group would become more or less positive depending on whether their intergroup relationship had improved or degraded. Intergroup events (e.g., World War II , Persian Gulf conflicts) often changed intergroup relationships. For example, after WWII, Black American students held

5202-493: The 2-D barcode from the back of the card. A nuanced, mostly aesthetic redesign of the card was issued sometime after the 2015 version. There is a machine-readable zone at the back of the card. It consists of 3 rows each containing 30 characters. The format is compliant with ICAO Document 9303 Part 5. Checksum calculation is the same algorithm used in Machine-readable passports. Multiply each digit by its weight. Weight of

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5304-698: The Elders of Zion only made sense if Jews have certain characteristics. Therefore, according to Tajfel, Jews were stereotyped as being evil and yearning for world domination to match the antisemitic "facts" as presented in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. People create stereotypes of an outgroup to justify the actions that their in-group has committed (or plans to commit) towards that outgroup. For example, according to Tajfel, Europeans stereotyped African, Indian, and Chinese people as being incapable of achieving financial advances without European help. This stereotype

5406-550: The French adjective stéréotype and derives from the Greek words στερεός ( stereos ), 'firm, solid' and τύπος ( typos ), 'impression', hence 'solid impression on one or more ideas / theories '. The term was first used in the printing trade in 1798 by Firmin Didot , to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography . The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype ,

5508-515: The IRCC officer determines that he or she is no longer a permanent resident. Similarly, under section 31(2)(b) of the IRPA, a person who is outside Canada without a valid PR card or signed confirmation of permanent residence document (electronic or otherwise) is presumed not to be a permanent resident unless proven otherwise. The IRPA, however, does not specify the requirement for a permanent resident to hold

5610-591: The Philippines. Permanent residency in Canada The permanent resident card ( French : carte de résident permanent ) also known colloquially as the PR card or the Maple Leaf card , is an identification document and a travel document that shows that a person has permanent residency in Canada. It is one of the methods by which Canadian permanent residents can prove their permanent residency status in Canada, and

5712-472: The agency–beliefs–communion (ABC) model suggested that methods to study warmth and competence in the stereotype content model (SCM) were missing a crucial element, that being, stereotypes of social groups are often spontaneously generated. Experiments on the SCM usually ask participants to rate traits according to warmth and competence but this does not allow participants to use any other stereotype dimensions. The ABC model, proposed by Koch and colleagues in 2016

5814-486: The attributes that people think characterize a group. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons and mechanisms involved in stereotyping. Early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy . For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative. By contrast,

5916-400: The automatic activation of negative stereotypes. In a study by Kawakami et al. (2000), for example, participants were presented with a category label and taught to respond "No" to stereotypic traits and "Yes" to nonstereotypic traits. After this training period, subjects showed reduced stereotype activation. This effect is based on the learning of new and more positive stereotypes rather than

6018-407: The behavior confirms and even strengthens existing stereotypes. Second, the affective or emotional aspects of prejudice render logical arguments against stereotypes ineffective in countering the power of emotional responses. Correspondence bias refers to the tendency to ascribe a person's behavior to disposition or personality, and to underestimate the extent to which situational factors elicited

6120-427: The behavior. Correspondence bias can play an important role in stereotype formation. For example, in a study by Roguer and Yzerbyt (1999) participants watched a video showing students who were randomly instructed to find arguments either for or against euthanasia . The students that argued in favor of euthanasia came from the same law department or from different departments. Results showed that participants attributed

6222-504: The belief that the events are correlated . In the inter-group context, illusory correlations lead people to misattribute rare behaviors or traits at higher rates to minority group members than to majority groups, even when both display the same proportion of the behaviors or traits. Black people , for instance, are a minority group in the United States and interaction with blacks is a relatively infrequent event for an average white American . Similarly, undesirable behavior (e.g. crime)

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6324-476: The broader community and isolation from the caregiver's family. Due to the lack of regulatory oversight, violations by employers often have gone without recourse. Additionally, caregivers often lack the English language skills or legal knowledge to articulate and report these violations. Another issue has been the deskilling of caregivers, who are required to have a grade 12 education (or acceptable equivalent) and domestic service training. Often, these workers have

6426-439: The card's date of expiration. For the back of the card, an optical stripe which contains the holder's information is available on top. Below it are additional information on the holder including their immigration category, colour of eyes and height, country of birth as well as the day the holder became a permanent resident. A machine readable zone is at the bottom. The colour of the card is aqua, with graphs in purple and orange, and

6528-718: The caregiving work permits are now occupation-specific rather than employer-specific, allowing employees to quickly transition to a different employer if necessary. A 2008 study by the Filipino Women's Organization PINAY Quebec and the McGill University School of Social Work found that only 22.1% of employers always respected the contract, and that 25% signed no contract at all. Further contractual violations included: 34% of participants reporting denial of fair pay for unpaid childcare wages; 43% reporting having provided unpaid overtime; and 30% reporting having made purchases for

6630-399: The category itself may be an arbitrary grouping. A complementary perspective theorizes how stereotypes function as time- and energy-savers that allow people to act more efficiently. Yet another perspective suggests that stereotypes are people's biased perceptions of their social contexts. In this view, people use stereotypes as shortcuts to make sense of their social contexts, and this makes

6732-458: The control group (although the test did not include any words specifically referring to slowness), thus acting in a way that the stereotype suggests that elderly people will act. And the stereotype of the elder will affect the subjective perception of them through depression. In another experiment, Bargh, Chen, and Burrows also found that because the stereotype about blacks includes the notion of aggression, subliminal exposure to black faces increased

6834-457: The emotional response, and discrimination refers to actions. Although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. According to Daniel Katz and Kenneth Braly, stereotyping leads to racial prejudice when people emotionally react to the name of a group, ascribe characteristics to members of that group, and then evaluate those characteristics. Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are: Stereotype content refers to

6936-408: The fee is CA$ 50 . The officers abroad will then determine whether the person still has permanent resident status. Whether one is a permanent resident or not is determined by the provisions of the IRPA. Under section 31(2)(a) of the IRPA, a person with a valid permanent card or signed confirmation of permanent residence document (electronic or otherwise) is presumed to be a permanent resident unless

7038-523: The five-year period of the card's renewal application. The fee is CA$ 50 . In some cases, the PR card must be collected in person at an IRCC office in Canada. The PR card is normally valid for five years. However, it may be valid for one year for those whose PR status is being assessed by the IRCC. As permanent residents must meet the residency obligation (minimum of 730 days in every five years) in order to renew PR cards, all valid PR card holders are deemed to have not lost permanent resident status and have

7140-420: The four combinations of high and low levels of warmth and competence elicit distinct emotions. The model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was empirically tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. An even more recent model of stereotype content called

7242-580: The government relaunched these programs in 2019, under the titles of Home Child Care Provider Pilot and the Home Support Worker Pilot. These pilots will run for five years. The relaunch of these programs brought a few important changes from the previous pilots launched in 2014. Firstly, they aim to provide a clearer pathway from temporary resident status to permanent resident status. Additionally, these new programs provide open-work permits for spouses and study permits for dependent children. Lastly,

7344-448: The high-status Pacific Islanders as competent. The correspondence bias was a significant predictor of stereotyping even after controlling for other measures that have been linked to beliefs about low status groups, the just-world fallacy and social dominance orientation . Based on the anti-public sector bias, Döring and Willems (2021) found that employees in the public sector are considered as less professional compared to employees in

7446-690: The ingroup and/or outgroups, ingroup members take collective action to prevent other ingroup members from diverging from each other. John C. Turner proposed in 1987 that if ingroup members disagree on an outgroup stereotype, then one of three possible collective actions follow: First, ingroup members may negotiate with each other and conclude that they have different outgroup stereotypes because they are stereotyping different subgroups of an outgroup (e.g., Russian gymnasts versus Russian boxers). Second, ingroup members may negotiate with each other, but conclude that they are disagreeing because of categorical differences amongst themselves. Accordingly, in this context, it

7548-411: The initial 2002 and 2009 versions should be no longer in use. All three versions of the card contain a maple leaf in the front of the card, hence earning the nickname "maple leaf card". The card is an ISO/IEC 7810 ID-1 sized (commonly known as credit-card sized) document. The front of the card contains the holder's photograph, name, an 8-digit ID number, sex, nationality, date of birth, signature and

7650-558: The interactions do not always disconfirm stereotypes. They are also known to form and maintain them. The dual-process model of cognitive processing of stereotypes asserts that automatic activation of stereotypes is followed by a controlled processing stage, during which an individual may choose to disregard or ignore the stereotyped information that has been brought to mind. A number of studies have found that stereotypes are activated automatically. Patricia Devine (1989), for example, suggested that stereotypes are automatically activated in

7752-575: The job with personal finances. Participants also reported that they did not receive pay increases in adherence with minimum wage increases, and 75% reported not being paid on time. Critics have highlighted that the requirement that caregivers live with their employers leaves more opportunities for misconduct, as caregivers are constantly accessible and able to work long hours without a break. Additionally, caregivers are often not afforded privacy within their employers homes, often being denied independent living spaces. This lack of privacy leads to isolation from

7854-465: The last 3 years—though various exceptions and additional stipulations do apply. Such regulations and complicating bureaucratic procedures are the driving force behind the creation of Live-In Caregiver (or Nanny) placement agencies, who act as a mediator between families, caregivers, and the government—providing support for documentation and advice on the program. In 2014, the Government of Canada conducted

7956-404: The likelihood that randomly selected white college students reacted with more aggression and hostility than participants who subconsciously viewed a white face. Similarly, Correll et al. (2002) showed that activated stereotypes about blacks can influence people's behavior. In a series of experiments, black and white participants played a video game, in which a black or white person was shown holding

8058-405: The most cognitive component and often occurs without conscious awareness, whereas prejudice is the affective component of stereotyping and discrimination is one of the behavioral components of prejudicial reactions. In this tripartite view of intergroup attitudes, stereotypes reflect expectations and beliefs about the members of groups perceived as different from one's own, prejudice represents

8160-439: The negation of already existing ones. Empirical evidence suggests that stereotype activation can automatically influence social behavior. For example, Bargh , Chen, and Burrows (1996) activated the stereotype of the elderly among half of their participants by administering a scrambled-sentence test where participants saw words related to age stereotypes. Subjects primed with the stereotype walked significantly more slowly than

8262-436: The neutral category labels were presented, people high and low in prejudice would respond differently. In a design similar to Devine's, Lepore and Brown primed the category of African-Americans using labels such as "blacks" and "West Indians" and then assessed the differential activation of the associated stereotype in the subsequent impression-formation task. They found that high-prejudice participants increased their ratings of

8364-422: The presence of a member (or some symbolic equivalent) of a stereotyped group and that the unintentional activation of the stereotype is equally strong for high- and low-prejudice persons. Words related to the cultural stereotype of blacks were presented subliminally . During an ostensibly unrelated impression-formation task, subjects read a paragraph describing a race-unspecified target person's behaviors and rated

8466-420: The private sector. They build on the assumption that the red-tape and bureaucratic nature of the public sector spills over in the perception that citizens have about the employees working in the sector. With an experimental vignette study, they analyze how citizens process information on employees' sector affiliation, and integrate non-work role-referencing to test the stereotype confirmation assumption underlying

8568-562: The program for perpetuating a racist devaluation of the women who immigrate to Canada to work in the caregiving industry. According to this argument, migrant women come to participate in the workforce under the pretence of economic opportunity, but are not granted citizenship rights until they have been working for at least two years. Scholars have characterized the program as exploitative based on its recruitment of migrant women to perform difficult jobs, while not putting adequate oversight and accountability measures in place. Other critics argue that

8670-485: The program furthers existing racial stereotypes against Filipina women as being nurturing and loving, yet simultaneously "uncivilized" and lesser than. Critics contended that as a means of boosting immigration to Canada, the program failed to attract caregivers from a diverse pool of countries. For example, the Philippine nanny is often improperly stereotyped as the program's main market for applicants. While there may be

8772-469: The property of the Canadian Crown and must be returned or destroyed upon request. Before 1910, immigrants to Canada were referred to as landed immigrant ( French : immigrant reçu ) for a person who has been admitted to Canada as a non- Canadian citizen . The Immigration Act 1910 introduced the term of "permanent residence," and in 2002 the terminology was officially changed in with the passage of

8874-552: The public or private sectors that require a high-level security clearance . As non-citizens, permanent residents must use the passport of their current nationality in combination with a permanent resident card for international travel because they cannot be issued Canadian passports (unless they are stateless and issued a Canadian Certificate of Identity or Refugee travel document ) Some countries will grant visa-free entry to Canadian permanent residents even if their current nationality would not typically qualify. To re-enter Canada on

8976-402: The relations among different groups in a social structure. They suggest that stereotypes are the result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotional development. Once stereotypes have formed, there are two main factors that explain their persistence. First, the cognitive effects of schematic processing (see schema ) make it so that when a member of a group behaves as we expect,

9078-482: The right to enter and remain in Canada during the card's validity. If, however, the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) officer at the port of entry considers the permanent resident may not meet the residency obligation, the person may be reported to IRCC and may be required to attend a hearing to determine his or her PR status. A PR card's expiration date does not indicate that the holder's status as

9180-682: The same social benefits that Canadian citizens receive, including becoming contributing members of the Canada Pension Plan and receiving coverage by their province or territory's universal health care system , and as of 2022 are allowed to enlist in the Canadian Armed Forces . All permanent residents are entitled to the rights, freedoms, and protections under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . Permanent residents may apply for Canadian citizenship after living in Canada for

9282-547: The same stereotypes. Some psychologists believe that although stereotypes can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. If stereotypes are defined by social values, then stereotypes only change as per changes in social values. The suggestion that stereotype content depends on social values reflects Walter Lippman 's argument in his 1922 publication that stereotypes are rigid because they cannot be changed at will. Studies emerging since

9384-469: The same way. The problem with the 'common environment' is that explanation in general is that it does not explain how shared stereotypes can occur without direct stimuli. Research since the 1930s suggested that people are highly similar with each other in how they describe different racial and national groups, although those people have no personal experience with the groups they are describing. Another explanation says that people are socialised to adopt

9486-452: The shooter bias even more pronounced. Stereotypes can be efficient shortcuts and sense-making tools. They can, however, keep people from processing new or unexpected information about each individual, thus biasing the impression formation process. Early researchers believed that stereotypes were inaccurate representations of reality. A series of pioneering studies in the 1930s found no empirical support for widely held racial stereotypes. By

9588-523: The stereotype of their ingroups and outgroups to suit context. Once an outgroup treats an ingroup member badly, they are more drawn to the members of their own group. This can be seen as members within a group are able to relate to each other though a stereotype because of identical situations. A person can embrace a stereotype to avoid humiliation such as failing a task and blaming it on a stereotype. Stereotypes are an indicator of ingroup consensus. When there are intragroup disagreements over stereotypes of

9690-409: The students' responses to their attitudes although it had been made clear in the video that students had no choice about their position. Participants reported that group membership, i.e., the department that the students belonged to, affected the students' opinions about euthanasia. Law students were perceived to be more in favor of euthanasia than students from different departments despite the fact that

9792-482: The target person on several trait scales. Results showed that participants who received a high proportion of racial words rated the target person in the story as significantly more hostile than participants who were presented with a lower proportion of words related to the stereotype. This effect held true for both high- and low-prejudice subjects (as measured by the Modern Racism Scale). Thus, the racial stereotype

9894-450: The target person on the negative stereotypic dimensions and decreased them on the positive dimension whereas low-prejudice subjects tended in the opposite direction. The results suggest that the level of prejudice and stereotype endorsement affects people's judgements when the category – and not the stereotype per se – is primed. Research has shown that people can be trained to activate counterstereotypic information and thereby reduce

9996-727: The ubiquity of stereotypes and it was suggested to regard stereotypes as collective group beliefs, meaning that people who belong to the same social group share the same set of stereotypes. Modern research asserts that full understanding of stereotypes requires considering them from two complementary perspectives: as shared within a particular culture/subculture and as formed in the mind of an individual person. Stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on an intergroup level (see social identity approaches: social identity theory and self-categorization theory ), an individual must see themselves as part of

10098-589: Was activated even for low-prejudice individuals who did not personally endorse it. Studies using alternative priming methods have shown that the activation of gender and age stereotypes can also be automatic. Subsequent research suggested that the relation between category activation and stereotype activation was more complex. Lepore and Brown (1997), for instance, noted that the words used in Devine's study were both neutral category labels (e.g., "Blacks") and stereotypic attributes (e.g., "lazy"). They argued that if only

10200-403: Was described as being higher in status than the other. In a second study, subjects rated actual groups – the poor and wealthy, women and men – in the United States in terms of their competence. Subjects who scored high on the measure of correspondence bias stereotyped the poor, women, and the fictitious lower-status Pacific Islanders as incompetent whereas they stereotyped the wealthy, men, and

10302-430: Was not distinctive at the time of presentation, but was considered distinctive at the time of judgement. Once a person judges non-distinctive information in memory to be distinctive, that information is re-encoded and re-represented as if it had been distinctive when it was first processed. One explanation for why stereotypes are shared is that they are the result of a common environment that stimulates people to react in

10404-621: Was used to justify European colonialism in Africa, India, and China. An assumption is that people want their ingroup to have a positive image relative to outgroups, and so people want to differentiate their ingroup from relevant outgroups in a desirable way. If an outgroup does not affect the ingroup's image, then from an image preservation point of view, there is no point for the ingroup to be positively distinct from that outgroup. People can actively create certain images for relevant outgroups by stereotyping. People do so when they see that their ingroup

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